History Glossary: World and U.S. History Key Terms with Dates and Definitions

WORLD HISTORY · GLOSSARY

History Glossary806 key terms of world history and U.S. history

806Key terms

7World history periods

9U.S. history periods

About this glossary and this site

This glossary explains the key terms that students meet in world history and U.S. history classes, from the Neolithic Revolution to the War on Terror. Each entry gives the dates, a short definition in plain English, and a link to the matching page of our timeline, so you can see what else was happening in the world at the same time.

World Chronicle is a world history timeline from prehistory to today, with pages for every era, every decade and every year since 1910. Events are colored by region, and the same key terms are highlighted inside the timeline. Turn on Key terms only to show just the events you need to study.

It is the history companion to Whose Birthday Today?, which lists the famous people born on every day of the year. Every date in the timeline links to the people born that day, so history and birthdays connect in both directions.

Definitions are written and fact-checked by the site editors. Dates of ancient events are approximate.

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World historyPaleolithic and Neolithic eras 2 River valley civilizations 13 Classical era 56 Postclassical era 66 Early modern era 76 Age of revolutions and industrialization 54 World wars, Cold War and globalization 198

U.S. historyNative America and European contact 3 Colonial America 23 Revolution and the new nation 41 The early republic 34 Expansion, Civil War and Reconstruction 52 The Gilded Age 21 Progressive Era, world wars and the New Deal 62 Postwar America, Cold War and civil rights 80 Contemporary America 25

A–Z index of all 806 terms

1948 Arab–Israeli War 1953 Iranian coup 1968 Democratic National Convention 1973 oil crisis 95 Theses Abbasid Caliphate Abolition of serfdom Abolition of slavery in Brazil Abolition of the slave trade Abraham Lincoln Achaemenid Empire Act of Supremacy Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves Acts of Union 1707 Adam Smith Adams–Onís Treaty Adolf Hitler Affordable Care Act African National Congress Agricultural Adjustment Act Akbar Aksum Al-Andalus Al-Qaeda Alaska Purchase Alexander Hamilton Alexander the Great Algerian War Alien and Sedition Acts American Civil War American Federation of Labor American Indian Movement American Revolution Americans with Disabilities Act Amistad Amritsar Massacre An Lushan Rebellion Andrew Carnegie Andrew Jackson Andrew Johnson Anne Hutchinson Annexation of Crimea Annexation of Hawaii Annexation of Texas Anschluss Apartheid Apollo 11 Arab Spring Archduke Franz Ferdinand Aristotle Armenian Genocide Armistice of 1918 Articles of Confederation Ashoka Assassination of Abraham Lincoln Assassination of John F. Kennedy Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.Athenian democracy Atlantic Charter Atlantic slave trade Attack on Pearl Harbor Attila the Hun Augusto Pinochet Aurangzeb Auschwitz Axis powers Ayatollah Khomeini Aztec Empire Babur Babylonian Captivity Bacon's Rebellion Baghdad Balfour Declaration Bandung Conference Bank War Bantu migrations Barack Obama Bartolomeu Dias Battle of Adwa Battle of Ain Jalut Battle of Antietam Battle of Britain Battle of Chaldiran Battle of Dien Bien Phu Battle of El Alamein Battle of Gettysburg Battle of Iwo Jima Battle of Lepanto Battle of Manzikert Battle of Marathon Battle of Midway Battle of New Orleans Battle of Okinawa Battle of Panipat Battle of Salamis Battle of Saratoga Battle of Sekigahara Battle of Stalingrad Battle of Talas Battle of the Little Bighorn Battle of the Somme Battle of Tippecanoe Battle of Tours Battle of Trenton Battle of Waterloo Bay of Pigs Invasion Benito Mussolini Berlin Airlift Berlin Conference Berlin Wall Bill Clinton Bill of Rights Birmingham campaign Black Death Black Hawk War Black Panther Party Bleeding Kansas Boer War Bolsheviks Bonus Army Boris Yeltsin Boston Massacre Boston Tea Party Boxer Rebellion Brazilian independence Brexit Brigham Young (Mormon migration)British East India Company British Raj Brown v. Board of Education Buddhism Bunker Hill Bush v. Gore Byzantine Empire California Gold Rush Calvin Coolidge Camp David Accords Caning of Charles Sumner Carolingian Empire Challenger disaster Charlemagne Charles Darwin Charles de Gaulle Charles I of England Charles V Chernobyl disaster Chiang Kai-shek Chinese Civil War Chinese Communist Party Chinese Exclusion Act Chola dynasty Christianity Christopher Columbus Civil Rights Act of 1866 Civil Rights Act of 1957 Civil Rights Act of 1964 Civil Rights Act of 1968 Civilian Conservation Corps Code of Hammurabi Cold War Columbian Exchange Commodore Perry Common Sense Communist Manifesto Compromise of 1850 Compromise of 1877 / Election of 1876 Confederate States of America Confucianism Confucius Congo Free State Congress of Vienna Conquistadors Constantine the Great Constantinople Constitutional Convention Continental Army Copernicus Cotton gin Council of Nicaea Council of Trent Court-packing plan COVID-19 pandemic Coxey's Army Crimean War Cross of Gold speech Crusades Cuban Missile Crisis Cuban Revolution Cultural Revolution Cyril and Methodius Cyrus the Great D-Day Dawes Act De-Stalinization Declaration of Independence Declaration of the Rights of Man Decolonization Delhi Sultanate Delian League Deng Xiaoping Department of Homeland Security Desegregation of the armed forces Diocletian Dissolution of the Soviet Union Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization Dodd–Frank Act Domino theory Donald Trump Douglas MacArthur Dred Scott v. Sandford Dust Bowl Dutch East India Company Dutch Republic Dwight D. Eisenhower Earth Day Edict of Milan Edict of Nantes Eighty Years' War Elizabeth I Ellis Island Emancipation Proclamation Embargo Act of 1807 Emergency Banking Act Emmett Till Empress Dowager Cixi Enabling Act Encomienda system Endangered Species Act English Bill of Rights English Civil War Enlightenment Equal Pay Act of 1963 Equal Rights Amendment Erie Canal European Economic Community European Union Fair Deal Fall of Baghdad (1258)Fall of Constantinople Fall of Saigon Fall of the Berlin Wall Fall of the Western Roman Empire Fascism Fatimid Caliphate Federal Reserve Ferdinand and Isabella Ferdinand Magellan Fidel Castro Fifteenth Amendment Fireside chats First Battle of Bull Run First Continental Congress First Sino-Japanese War Five-Year Plan Fort Sumter Founding of Rome Fourteen Points Fourteenth Amendment Francisco Franco Francisco Pizarro Franco-Prussian War Franklin D. Roosevelt Frederick Douglass Frederick the Great Freedom of Information Act Freedom Riders Freedom Summer French and Indian War French Revolution Fugitive Slave Act Furman v. Georgia G.I. Bill Gadsden Purchase Galileo Galilei Gallipoli campaign Gamal Abdel Nasser Geneva Accords Genghis Khan George Floyd protests George Washington Georgia Colony (Oglethorpe)German reunification German unification Geronimo Gettysburg Address Ghana Empire Glorious Revolution Golden Horde Good Friday Agreement Goryeo Great Awakening Great Depression Great Famine (Ireland)Great Migration Great Northern War Great Purge Great Pyramid of Giza Great Railroad Strike of 1877 Great Recession Great Schism of 1054 Great Society Great Wall of China Great White Fleet Great Zimbabwe Greek War of Independence Greensboro sit-ins Griswold v. Connecticut Gulag Gulf of Tonkin Resolution Gulf War Gupta Empire Gutenberg printing press Hagia Sophia Haitian Revolution Han dynasty Harriet Tubman Harry S. Truman Haymarket affair Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States Hellenistic era Henry the Navigator Henry VIII Herbert Hoover Hernán Cortés Hijra Hiroshima Ho Chi Minh Holocaust Holy Roman Empire Homestead Act Homestead Strike Homo sapiens Hong Kong handover House of Wisdom House Un-American Activities Committee Hundred Years' War Hungarian Revolution of 1956 Hurricane Katrina I Have a Dream Ibn Battuta Ida B. Wells Ilkhanate Immigration Act of 1917 Impeachment of Bill Clinton Inca Empire Indian Citizenship Act Indian National Congress Indian Removal Act Indus Valley civilization Industrial Revolution Interstate Highway System Intifada Intolerable Acts Invasion of Poland Investiture Controversy Iran hostage crisis Iranian Revolution Iran–Contra affair Iraq War Irish War of Independence Iron Curtain Isaac Newton ISIS Islam Italian invasion of Ethiopia Italian unification Jackie Robinson James K. Polk James Meredith Jamestown Jan Hus January 6 United States Capitol attack Japanese American internment Jawaharlal Nehru Jay Treaty Jefferson Davis Jesus of Nazareth Jim Crow laws Jimmy Carter Joan of Arc Joe Biden John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry John Calvin John F. Kennedy José de San Martín Joseon dynasty Joseph Stalin Judiciary Act of 1789 Julius Caesar Justinian Code Justinian I Kamakura shogunate Kansas–Nebraska Act Karl Marx Kent State shootings Khmer Empire Khmer Rouge Kievan Rus'King Philip's War Kingdom of Kongo Korea annexed by Japan Korean War Korematsu v. United States Kosovo War Kristallnacht Ku Klux Klan Kublai Khan Kuomintang Kwame Nkrumah Kyoto Protocol League of Nations Lend-Lease Leon Trotsky Lewis and Clark Expedition Lexington and Concord Lincoln–Douglas debates Little Rock Nine Lochner v. New York Long March Los Angeles riots Louis XIV Louisiana Purchase Loving v. Virginia Lusitania Lyndon B. Johnson Maastricht Treaty Magna Carta Mahatma Gandhi Malcolm X Mali Empire Mamluk Sultanate Mandate of Heaven Mandate system Manhattan Project Manifest Destiny Manila Mao Zedong Maratha Empire Marbury v. Madison March on Rome March on Washington Marco Polo Margaret Thatcher Marshall Plan Martin Luther Martin Luther King Jr.Massachusetts Bay Colony Mau Mau Uprising Maurya Empire Maximilien Robespierre May Fourth Movement Maya civilization Mayflower Mayflower Compact McCarthyism (Second Red Scare)Medgar Evers Medicare and Medicaid Medici family Mehmed II Meiji Restoration Mesopotamia Mexican Revolution Mexican War of Independence Mexican–American War Michelangelo Mikhail Gorbachev Ming dynasty Miranda v. Arizona Missouri Compromise Model T Mongol Empire Monroe Doctrine Montgomery bus boycott Mughal Empire Muhammad Mukden Incident Munich Agreement Muslim League Mustafa Kemal Atatürk My Lai Massacre NAACP NAFTA Nagasaki Nanjing Massacre Napoleon Bonaparte Napoleonic Code Napoleonic Wars NASA Nat Turner's Rebellion National Organization for Women NATO Navigation Acts Nazi Party Nazi–Soviet Pact Nelson Mandela Neolithic Revolution Neutrality Acts New Amsterdam New Deal New Economic Policy New Netherland New York City draft riots Nez Perce War Nigerian Civil War Nikita Khrushchev Nineteenth Amendment Nixon resignation Nixon visit to China Non-Aligned Movement Norman Conquest Northwest Ordinance Northwest Territory Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty Nullification Crisis Nuremberg Laws Nuremberg trials Obergefell v. Hodges Occupation of Alcatraz Octavian / Augustus October Revolution Oklahoma City bombing Olive Branch Petition Oliver Cromwell Olmec civilization One-child policy OPEC Open Door Policy Operation Barbarossa Opium Wars Oregon Trail Oregon Treaty Osama bin Laden Oslo Accords Otto von Bismarck Ottoman Empire Palace of Versailles Palestine Liberation Organization Palmer Raids (First Red Scare)Panama Canal Panic of 1857 Panic of 1873 Panic of 1907 Paper (Han China)Paris Agreement Partition of India Pax Romana Peace of Augsburg Peace of Westphalia Peloponnesian War Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act Pentagon Papers People's Republic of China Pequot War Pericles Persian Wars Peter the Great Philip II of Spain Philippine–American War Phoenicians Pilgrims Plato Platt Amendment Plessy v. Ferguson Plymouth Colony Pol Pot Pontiac's War Potosí silver Potsdam Conference Powhatan Prague Spring Proclamation of 1763 Prohibition (18th Amendment)Protestant Reformation Pueblo Revolt Pullman Strike Punic Wars Pure Food and Drug Act Puritans Qin dynasty Qing dynasty Quartering Act Quasi-War Quebec Act Rashidun Caliphate Reconquista Reconstruction Regents of the University of California v. Bakke Reign of Terror Renaissance Republic of Texas Republican Party Restoration (Charles II)Revolutions of 1848 Revolutions of 1989 Richard Nixon Robert E. Lee Robert F. Kennedy Roe v. Wade Roger Williams Roman Empire Roman Republic Romanov dynasty Ronald Reagan Rosa Parks Rosenberg trial Russian invasion of Ukraine Russian Revolution Russian Revolution of 1905 Russo-Japanese War Rwandan genocide Sacco and Vanzetti Saddam Hussein Safavid Empire Saladin Salem witch trials SALT I Salt March Salvador Allende Sand Creek massacre Sandinistas Sandra Day O'Connor Sargon of Akkad Sasanian Empire Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States Scientific Revolution Scopes Trial Scramble for Africa Secession Second Continental Congress Second Sino-Japanese War Securities and Exchange Commission Selective Service Act Seljuk Turks Selma to Montgomery marches Seneca Falls Convention Sepoy Rebellion September 11 attacks Seven Years' War Shang dynasty Shays' Rebellion Sherman Antitrust Act Sherman's March to the Sea Siege of Vicksburg Siege of Vienna (1529)Siege of Yorktown Sierra Club Silent Spring Silk Road Simón Bolívar Sitting Bull Six-Day War Sixteenth Amendment Slavery Abolition Act Smoot–Hawley Tariff Social Security Act Society of Jesus (Jesuits)Socrates Solidarity Song dynasty Songhai Empire Sons of Liberty Soviet–Afghan War Space Race Spanish Armada Spanish Civil War Spanish flu Spanish–American War Sputnik Srivijaya St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre Stamp Act Standard Oil State of Israel Steam engine Stonewall riots Stono Rebellion Storming of the Bastille Suez Canal Suez Crisis Sui dynasty Sukarno Suleiman the Magnificent Sumer Sun Yat-sen Sunni–Shia split Surrender at Appomattox Susan B. Anthony Sykes–Picot Agreement Taft–Hartley Act Taiping Rebellion Taj Mahal Tang dynasty Tariff of Abominations Tea Act Teapot Dome scandal Tennessee Valley Authority Tenochtitlan Teotihuacan Tet Offensive Texas Revolution The Feminine Mystique Theodore Roosevelt Theodosius I Thirteenth Amendment Thirty Years' War Thomas Jefferson Three Mile Island Thurgood Marshall Tiananmen Square protests Timur Title IX Tokugawa shogunate Toyotomi Hideyoshi Trail of Tears Transcontinental Railroad Treaty of Alliance of 1778 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Treaty of Ghent Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo Treaty of Nanjing Treaty of Paris Treaty of Tordesillas Treaty of Utrecht Treaty of Versailles Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire Triple Alliance Triple Entente Truman Doctrine Tulsa race massacre Tweed Ring Twelfth Amendment Twelve Tables Twenty-fifth Amendment Twenty-first Amendment Twenty-fourth Amendment Twenty-second Amendment Twenty-sixth Amendment U.S. Constitution Ulysses S. Grant Umayyad Caliphate UN Partition Plan for Palestine Uncle Tom's Cabin United Farm Workers United Nations United States v. Nixon Universal Declaration of Human Rights Unrestricted submarine warfare USA PATRIOT Act USS Maine Valley Forge Vasco da Gama Vedic culture Vichy France Viet Cong Vietnam War Vietnamization Vikings Visigoths Vladimir Lenin Vladimir Putin Vladimir the Great Voting Rights Act of 1965 Wagner Act Wall Street Crash of 1929 Wannsee Conference War in Afghanistan War of 1812 War of the Austrian Succession War of the Spanish Succession War on drugs War on Terror War Powers Resolution Warring States period Warsaw Ghetto Uprising Warsaw Pact Washington's Farewell Address Watergate scandal Watts riots Western Schism Whig Party Whiskey Rebellion William Penn Winston Churchill Women's suffrage Woodrow Wilson Works Progress Administration World Trade Organization World War I World War II World Wide Web Wounded Knee Massacre Wright brothers Xinhai Revolution XYZ Affair Yalta Conference Yasser Arafat Yellow Turban Rebellion Yom Kippur War Yuan dynasty Yugoslav Wars Zenger trial Zheng He Zhou dynasty Zimmermann Telegram Zionism Zoot Suit Riots

World history: Paleolithic and Neolithic eras to c. 3500 BCE

Homo sapiensc. 300,000 years ago: The species of modern humans, which first appeared in Africa and later spread to every continent. Its capacity for language, tools, and cooperation made all later human history possible. Timeline: Prehistory ›
Neolithic Revolutionc. 10,000–8000 BCE: The shift from hunting and gathering to farming and herding, which began in the Fertile Crescent. Food surpluses let people settle in villages, grow in number, and eventually build cities. Timeline: Prehistory ›

World history: River valley civilizations c. 3500–600 BCE

Sumerc. 3300–2000 BCE: The earliest known civilization, made up of city-states in southern Mesopotamia such as Uruk and Ur. Sumerians developed cuneiform writing, irrigation, and monumental temples called ziggurats. Timeline: Prehistory ›
Mesopotamiac. 3500–539 BCE: The land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in modern Iraq. Its fertile soil supported some of the first cities, writing systems, law codes, and empires, earning it the name "cradle of civilization." Timeline: Prehistory ›
Indus Valley civilizationc. 2600–1900 BCE: A Bronze Age urban society in modern Pakistan and northwest India, with planned cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. It had advanced drainage systems, but its writing has never been deciphered. Timeline: 3000–1001 BCE ›
Great Pyramid of Gizac. 2560 BCE: The largest of Egypt's pyramids, built as a tomb for the pharaoh Khufu. It shows the wealth, organized labor, and engineering skill of Old Kingdom Egypt and was the tallest human-made structure for centuries. Timeline: 3000–1001 BCE ›
Sargon of Akkadruled c. 2334–2279 BCE: A Mesopotamian ruler who conquered the Sumerian city-states and founded the Akkadian Empire. He is often called the creator of the world's first empire, uniting many peoples under one government. Timeline: 3000–1001 BCE ›
Code of Hammurabic. 1754 BCE: A set of about 282 laws issued by King Hammurabi of Babylon and carved on a stone pillar. It is one of the oldest written law codes, showing that rules and punishments were made public, though they varied by social class. Timeline: 3000–1001 BCE ›
Shang dynastyc. 1600–1046 BCE: The first Chinese dynasty confirmed by archaeology, centered on the Yellow River valley. The Shang left oracle bones with the earliest known Chinese writing and were skilled bronze workers. Timeline: 3000–1001 BCE ›
Vedic culturec. 1500–500 BCE: The culture of northern India during the period when the Vedas, sacred Sanskrit hymns, were composed. It shaped early Hinduism and the varna social order that later developed into the caste system. Timeline: 3000–1001 BCE ›
Olmec civilizationc. 1200–400 BCE: One of the earliest complex societies in Mesoamerica, on Mexico's Gulf Coast. Known for giant carved stone heads, the Olmec influenced later cultures such as the Maya in religion, art, and calendars. Timeline: 3000–1001 BCE ›
Phoeniciansc. 1500–300 BCE: A seafaring trading people from cities like Tyre and Sidon in modern Lebanon who founded colonies such as Carthage. Their simple alphabet of consonants was the ancestor of the Greek and Latin alphabets. Timeline: 3000–1001 BCE ›
Zhou dynasty1046–256 BCE: China's longest-ruling dynasty, which overthrew the Shang. The Zhou introduced the idea of the Mandate of Heaven, and during their later, weaker centuries Confucianism and Daoism emerged. Timeline: 3000–1001 BCE ›
Bantu migrationsc. 1000 BCE–500 CE: A gradual spread of Bantu-speaking peoples from west-central Africa across much of central, eastern, and southern Africa. They carried farming and ironworking, and their languages are spoken by millions today. Timeline: 1000–501 BCE ›
Founding of Rome753 BCE (traditional date): The legendary founding of Rome by Romulus, according to Roman tradition. The small settlement on the Tiber River grew into a city that would later rule the entire Mediterranean world. Timeline: 1000–501 BCE ›

World history: Classical era c. 600 BCE–600 CE

Buddhismc. 6th–5th century BCE: A religion founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, teaching that suffering can be ended by following the Eightfold Path. It spread along trade routes to East and Southeast Asia. Timeline: 1000–501 BCE ›
Babylonian Captivity597–538 BCE: The period when many people of the kingdom of Judah were forced into exile in Babylon after the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem and its temple. It deeply shaped Jewish religious identity and scripture. Timeline: 1000–501 BCE ›
Confuciusc. 551–479 BCE: A Chinese teacher and philosopher who stressed proper relationships, respect for elders, and moral leadership. His ideas, recorded in the Analects, became the foundation of Chinese education and government for centuries. Timeline: 1000–501 BCE ›
Cyrus the Greatruled c. 559–530 BCE: The founder of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, who conquered Media, Lydia, and Babylon. He was known for tolerating local customs and religions and allowed exiled Jews to return to Jerusalem. Timeline: 1000–501 BCE ›
Roman Republic509–27 BCE: The period when Rome was governed by elected officials and a Senate instead of a king. Its ideas of representative government and checks on power later influenced the framers of the U.S. Constitution. Timeline: 1000–501 BCE ›
Athenian democracyc. 508–322 BCE: The system of government in Athens in which adult male citizens voted directly on laws in an assembly. Women, slaves, and foreigners were excluded, but it was an early model of rule by the people. Timeline: 1000–501 BCE ›
Persian Wars499–449 BCE: A series of conflicts between the Persian Empire and Greek city-states, starting with a revolt of Greek cities in Ionia. Greek victories protected Greek independence and led to a golden age in Athens. Timeline: the 500s BCE ›
Battle of Marathon490 BCE: A battle in which Athenian soldiers defeated a larger Persian invasion force near Athens. The victory boosted Greek confidence and, according to legend, inspired the long-distance race named after it. Timeline: the 490s BCE ›
Battle of Salamis480 BCE: A naval battle in which a Greek fleet led by Athens defeated the Persian navy in a narrow strait near Athens. It turned the tide of the Persian Wars and helped make Athens a major sea power. Timeline: the 480s BCE ›
Delian League478–404 BCE: An alliance of Greek city-states formed to defend against Persia, led by Athens. Athens used the league's money and fleet to build its own empire, which angered Sparta and helped cause the Peloponnesian War. Timeline: the 480s BCE ›
Twelve Tablesc. 451–450 BCE: The first written laws of the Roman Republic, displayed publicly in the Forum. Putting laws in writing helped protect ordinary citizens (plebeians) from unfair decisions by powerful officials. Timeline: the 460s BCE ›
Periclesled Athens c. 461–429 BCE: An Athenian statesman who expanded democracy and funded projects like the Parthenon. His era is called the Golden Age of Athens, but his policies also helped draw Athens into war with Sparta. Timeline: the 450s BCE ›
Peloponnesian War431–404 BCE: A long war between Athens and its allies and Sparta and its allies. Sparta won, but the fighting weakened all the Greek city-states and left them open to later conquest by Macedonia. Timeline: the 430s BCE ›
Warring States period475–221 BCE: An era of constant warfare among rival Chinese states after Zhou power collapsed. It produced new ideas such as Legalism and Daoism and ended when the Qin state unified China. Timeline: the 410s BCE ›
Socratesc. 470–399 BCE: An Athenian philosopher who taught by asking probing questions, a technique now called the Socratic method. He was sentenced to death for corrupting the youth, and his student Plato recorded his ideas. Timeline: the 400s BCE ›
Platoc. 428–348 BCE: A Greek philosopher and student of Socrates who founded the Academy in Athens. In The Republic he described an ideal state ruled by philosopher-kings, and his writings shaped Western thought. Timeline: the 390s BCE ›
Aristotle384–322 BCE: A Greek philosopher, student of Plato, and tutor of Alexander the Great. He wrote on logic, science, ethics, and politics, and his ideas dominated European and Islamic learning for centuries. Timeline: the 350s BCE ›
Alexander the Greatruled 336–323 BCE: A king of Macedonia who conquered the Persian Empire and reached as far as India. His conquests spread Greek language and culture across a huge area, beginning the Hellenistic era. Timeline: the 340s BCE ›
Achaemenid Empirec. 550–330 BCE: The first Persian Empire, founded by Cyrus the Great and stretching from Egypt to India. It used provinces called satrapies and the Royal Road, and it was conquered by Alexander the Great. Timeline: the 330s BCE ›
Hellenistic era323–31 BCE: The period after Alexander the Great's death when Greek culture blended with Egyptian, Persian, and Indian cultures. Cities like Alexandria became centers of science, philosophy, and trade. Timeline: the 330s BCE ›
Maurya Empirec. 322–185 BCE: The first empire to unite most of the Indian subcontinent, founded by Chandragupta Maurya. Under Ashoka it promoted Buddhism and built a strong central government. Timeline: the 320s BCE ›
Punic Wars264–146 BCE: Three wars between Rome and Carthage for control of the western Mediterranean. Rome won and destroyed Carthage in 146 BCE, becoming the dominant power in the Mediterranean. Timeline: the 270s BCE ›
Ashokaruled c. 268–232 BCE: A Mauryan emperor who, after a bloody conquest of Kalinga, turned to Buddhism and nonviolence. He carved edicts on pillars and rocks promoting moral conduct and helped spread Buddhism across Asia. Timeline: the 260s BCE ›
Qin dynasty221–206 BCE: The first dynasty to unify China, under Qin Shi Huang. It standardized writing, money, and weights, and linked earlier walls into a long northern wall, but its harsh Legalist rule caused it to fall quickly. Timeline: the 230s BCE ›
Great Wall of Chinac. 7th century BCE–1644 CE: A series of walls and fortifications built across northern China over many centuries to block raids from the steppe. Much of the wall seen today was rebuilt during the Ming dynasty. Timeline: the 220s BCE ›
Han dynasty206 BCE–220 CE: A long-lasting Chinese dynasty that made Confucianism the basis of government and created civil service exams. It expanded trade along the Silk Road, and many Chinese still call themselves the Han people. Timeline: the 210s BCE ›
Confucianismc. 5th century BCE–present: A philosophy based on the teachings of Confucius that stresses family loyalty, respect for authority, and moral leaders. Adopted by the Han, it shaped government and society in China, Korea, Vietnam, and Japan. Timeline: the 140s BCE ›
Silk Roadc. 130 BCE–1450s CE: A network of trade routes linking China with Central Asia, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean. Besides silk and spices, it spread religions, technologies, ideas, and also diseases. Timeline: the 120s BCE ›
Julius Caesar100–44 BCE: A Roman general and politician who conquered Gaul and won a civil war to become dictator. His assassination by senators led to more civil war and the end of the Roman Republic. Timeline: the 50s BCE ›
Octavian / Augustusruled 27 BCE–14 CE: Julius Caesar's adopted heir, who defeated his rivals and became Rome's first emperor, taking the title Augustus. He kept the forms of the Republic while holding real power, beginning the Pax Romana. Timeline: the 30s BCE ›
Pax Romana27 BCE–180 CE: Latin for "Roman Peace," a period of about 200 years of relative peace and stability in the Roman Empire. Trade grew, roads and cities expanded, and Roman culture spread throughout the provinces. Timeline: the 30s BCE ›
Roman Empire27 BCE–476 CE: The period when Rome was ruled by emperors, beginning with Augustus. At its height it controlled the Mediterranean world, spreading Latin, Roman law, roads, and later Christianity. Timeline: the 30s BCE ›
Mandate of Heavenfrom c. 1046 BCE: The Chinese belief that heaven grants a ruler the right to govern only as long as he rules justly. Disasters and rebellions were seen as signs the mandate was lost, justifying a change of dynasty. Timeline: the 0s BCE ›
Christianity1st century CE: A religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, which began among Jews in Judea. Spread by missionaries such as Paul, it became the Roman Empire's official religion and later a global faith. Timeline: the 1st century ›
Jesus of Nazarethc. 4 BCE–c. 30 CE: A Jewish preacher in Roman-ruled Judea whose followers believed him to be the Messiah. After he was executed by crucifixion under Roman authority, his followers spread his teachings, founding Christianity. Timeline: the 1st century ›
Teotihuacanc. 100 BCE–550 CE: A huge city in central Mexico, one of the largest in the world at its peak, known for the Pyramids of the Sun and Moon. It dominated trade and culture across Mesoamerica before its decline. Timeline: the 1st century ›
Paper (Han China)105 CE: In 105 CE the court official Cai Lun presented an improved method of making paper from bark, rags, and hemp. Cheap paper made records and books easier to produce and later spread across Asia and to Europe. Timeline: the 2nd century ›
Yellow Turban Rebellion184 CE: A large peasant uprising in China led by a Daoist religious movement whose members wore yellow headbands. Though put down, it weakened the Han dynasty and gave generals the power that led to its collapse. Timeline: the 2nd century ›
Sasanian Empire224–651 CE: The last Persian empire before the rise of Islam, which made Zoroastrianism its state religion. It was a long-time rival of Rome and Byzantium and fell to the Arab Muslim conquests. Timeline: the 3rd century ›
Maya civilizationClassic period c. 250–900 CE: A Mesoamerican civilization of city-states in southern Mexico and Central America. The Maya built stone pyramids and developed a full writing system, advanced mathematics including zero, and precise calendars. Timeline: the 3rd century ›
Diocletianruled 284–305 CE: A Roman emperor who ended a period of crisis by dividing the empire into eastern and western halves with several co-rulers. He also launched a major persecution of Christians. Timeline: the 3rd century ›
Constantine the Greatruled 306–337 CE: The first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity, which he legalized with the Edict of Milan. He founded Constantinople as a new capital, which became the center of the Byzantine Empire. Timeline: the 4th century ›
Edict of Milan313 CE: An agreement by Roman emperors Constantine and Licinius granting religious tolerance throughout the empire. It ended official persecution of Christians and allowed the church to grow openly. Timeline: the 4th century ›
Gupta Empirec. 320–550 CE: An Indian empire often called India's golden age. Scholars made advances in mathematics, including the decimal system and use of zero, as well as astronomy, literature, and art, while Hinduism flourished. Timeline: the 4th century ›
Council of Nicaea325 CE: The first council of Christian bishops from across the Roman Empire, called by Constantine. It produced the Nicene Creed, defining core Christian beliefs and rejecting Arianism as heresy. Timeline: the 4th century ›
Aksumc. 100–940 CE: A trading kingdom in modern Ethiopia and Eritrea that linked Africa, Arabia, and the Indian Ocean. Under King Ezana in the 300s, it became one of the first states to adopt Christianity. Timeline: the 4th century ›
Constantinoplefounded 330 CE: The city founded by Constantine on the site of Byzantium as the new Roman capital. Controlling trade between Europe and Asia, it was the Byzantine capital until 1453 and is now Istanbul, Turkey. Timeline: the 4th century ›
Theodosius Iruled 379–395 CE: A Roman emperor who made Nicene Christianity the official religion of the empire in 380 CE. He was the last emperor to rule both halves of the empire, which were split permanently after his death. Timeline: the 4th century ›
Visigoths376–711 CE: A Germanic people who crossed into the Roman Empire and sacked Rome in 410 CE. They later founded a kingdom in Spain that lasted until the Muslim conquest in 711. Timeline: the 5th century ›
Attila the Hunruled 434–453 CE: The leader of the Huns, a nomadic people from Central Asia, who raided both halves of the Roman Empire. His attacks added to the pressure that helped bring down the Western Roman Empire. Timeline: the 5th century ›
Fall of the Western Roman Empire476 CE: The end of Roman rule in the West, traditionally dated to when the Germanic leader Odoacer deposed the last emperor. Causes included invasions, economic trouble, and weak government; the East survived. Timeline: the 5th century ›
Byzantine Empire330–1453: The eastern half of the Roman Empire, which survived for about 1,000 years after the West fell. With its capital at Constantinople, it preserved Greek and Roman learning and spread Orthodox Christianity. Timeline: the 6th century ›
Justinian Iruled 527–565: A Byzantine emperor who tried to reconquer the former western Roman lands. He ordered the codification of Roman law and the building of the Hagia Sophia, with the support of his wife, Theodora. Timeline: the 6th century ›
Justinian Code529–534: A collection and organization of Roman law ordered by Emperor Justinian. It preserved Roman legal ideas and became the basis for the civil law systems of many European countries. Timeline: the 6th century ›
Hagia Sophiabuilt 532–537: A huge domed church in Constantinople built under Justinian, a masterpiece of Byzantine architecture. After the Ottoman conquest in 1453 it became a mosque, reflecting the city's changing rulers. Timeline: the 6th century ›
Sui dynasty581–618: A short-lived dynasty that reunified China after centuries of division. It built the Grand Canal linking northern and southern China, but costly projects and wars led to its quick fall. Timeline: the 6th century ›

World history: Postclassical era c. 600–1450

Islamfrom 610: A monotheistic religion based on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad, recorded in the Quran. It spread rapidly from Arabia across the Middle East, North Africa, and beyond, and is now a major world religion. Timeline: the 7th century ›
Tang dynasty618–907: A Chinese dynasty often seen as a golden age of culture, poetry, and trade. It expanded the civil service exam system and its capital, Chang'an, was one of the largest and most international cities in the world. Timeline: the 7th century ›
Hijra622: The migration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina to escape persecution. There he built the first Muslim community, and the year marks the start of the Islamic calendar. Timeline: the 7th century ›
Muhammadc. 570–632: The prophet of Islam, born in Mecca, who Muslims believe received revelations from God that became the Quran. He united much of the Arabian Peninsula under Islam by the time of his death. Timeline: the 7th century ›
Rashidun Caliphate632–661: The rule of the first four caliphs after Muhammad, called the "rightly guided" caliphs by Sunni Muslims. Arab armies quickly conquered the Sasanian Empire and Byzantine lands such as Syria and Egypt. Timeline: the 7th century ›
Sunni–Shia split632–680: A division in Islam that began with a dispute over who should lead Muslims after Muhammad's death. Shia supported Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, and the split deepened after the Battle of Karbala in 680. Timeline: the 7th century ›
Umayyad Caliphate661–750: The first hereditary Islamic dynasty, with its capital at Damascus. It expanded Muslim rule from Spain to Central Asia; after it was overthrown, a surviving branch ruled in Spain until 1031. Timeline: the 7th century ›
Srivijayac. 650–1300: A maritime trading kingdom based on Sumatra in modern Indonesia. It controlled the Strait of Malacca, taxing trade between India and China, and was a major center of Buddhist learning. Timeline: the 7th century ›
Ghana Empirec. 300–1200s: A West African empire, located in modern Mali and Mauritania, that grew rich by taxing trans-Saharan trade, especially gold and salt. It was an early example of a powerful African trading state. Timeline: the 7th century ›
Al-Andalus711–1492: The name for the parts of Spain and Portugal under Muslim rule. Cities like Córdoba became centers of learning where Muslim, Jewish, and Christian scholars preserved and shared knowledge. Timeline: the 8th century ›
Battle of Tours732: A battle in France in which Frankish forces led by Charles Martel defeated an invading Umayyad army. It halted the northward advance of Muslim armies into Western Europe. Timeline: the 8th century ›
Abbasid Caliphate750–1258: The Islamic dynasty that overthrew the Umayyads and moved the capital to Baghdad. It presided over a golden age of science, math, and medicine until the Mongols destroyed Baghdad in 1258. Timeline: the 8th century ›
Battle of Talas751: A battle in Central Asia in which Abbasid forces defeated a Tang Chinese army. It marked the limit of Chinese expansion westward, and tradition holds that captured Chinese spread papermaking to the Islamic world. Timeline: the 8th century ›
Carolingian Empire751–987: The Frankish dynasty named for Charlemagne, which ruled much of Western Europe. It revived learning in the Carolingian Renaissance, but was divided among Charlemagne's grandsons by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. Timeline: the 8th century ›
An Lushan Rebellion755–763: A massive revolt against the Tang dynasty led by the general An Lushan. It caused huge loss of life and permanently weakened the Tang government's control over China. Timeline: the 8th century ›
Baghdadfounded 762: The capital city built by the Abbasid Caliphate on the Tigris River in modern Iraq. It became one of the world's largest cities and a leading center of trade, scholarship, and culture. Timeline: the 8th century ›
Vikingsc. 793–1066: Seafaring Scandinavian raiders, traders, and settlers who reached Britain, France, Russia, Iceland, and even North America. Their attacks and settlements reshaped medieval European societies. Timeline: the 8th century ›
Charlemagneruled 768–814: A Frankish king who united much of Western Europe and was crowned emperor by the pope in 800. He promoted learning and Christianity, and his reign strengthened ties between the church and rulers. Timeline: the 8th century ›
House of Wisdom9th century: A library and center of learning in Abbasid Baghdad where scholars translated Greek, Persian, and Indian works into Arabic. It helped preserve ancient knowledge and advanced math and astronomy. Timeline: the 9th century ›
Cyril and Methodiusmission began 863: Two Byzantine brothers who served as Christian missionaries to the Slavs. They created the Glagolitic alphabet for Slavic languages; the later Cyrillic alphabet, used in Russia today, is named after Cyril. Timeline: the 9th century ›
Fatimid Caliphate909–1171: A Shia Islamic dynasty that ruled North Africa, Egypt, and parts of the Middle East. It founded Cairo in 969, which became a major center of trade and learning. Timeline: the 10th century ›
Goryeo918–1392: A Korean kingdom from which the English name "Korea" comes. It was known for celadon pottery and for printing with movable metal type, and it eventually became a vassal of the Mongols. Timeline: the 10th century ›
Song dynasty960–1279: A Chinese dynasty marked by economic growth, cities, and innovations like gunpowder weapons, the compass for navigation, and paper money. It was eventually conquered by the Mongols. Timeline: the 10th century ›
Holy Roman Empire962–1806: A loose union of states in central Europe, mostly German lands, led by an elected emperor. Its emperors often clashed with popes and with powerful local princes, so it never became a unified nation. Timeline: the 10th century ›
Kievan Rus'c. 880–1240: A medieval state centered on the city of Kyiv, founded by Scandinavian and Slavic peoples. It adopted Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium and is seen as an ancestor of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus. Timeline: the 10th century ›
Vladimir the Greatruled c. 980–1015: The prince of Kievan Rus' who converted to Orthodox Christianity around 988 and made it the state religion. This tied Russian and Ukrainian culture closely to the Byzantine world. Timeline: the 10th century ›
Chola dynastyc. 850–1279: A powerful Tamil dynasty in southern India with a strong navy. It expanded trade across the Indian Ocean, launched raids as far as Southeast Asia, and built great Hindu temples. Timeline: the 11th century ›
Great Schism of 10541054: The split between the Roman Catholic Church in the West and the Eastern Orthodox Church. Disagreements over the pope's authority and religious practices divided Christianity into two branches. Timeline: the 11th century ›
Norman Conquest1066: The invasion of England by William, Duke of Normandy, who won the Battle of Hastings and became king. It brought feudalism and French influence to England and greatly changed the English language. Timeline: the 11th century ›
Battle of Manzikert1071: A battle in eastern Anatolia in which the Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantine army and captured its emperor. It opened Anatolia to Turkish settlement and led Byzantium to ask the West for help. Timeline: the 11th century ›
Seljuk Turksc. 1037–1308: A Turkic Muslim dynasty that took over much of Persia, Iraq, and Anatolia. Their advance against the Byzantine Empire helped trigger the Crusades. Timeline: the 11th century ›
Investiture Controversy1075–1122: A power struggle between the pope and the Holy Roman Emperor over who had the right to appoint bishops. It ended with the Concordat of Worms and strengthened the independence of the church. Timeline: the 11th century ›
Crusades1095–1291: A series of religious wars called by popes in which European Christians tried to take the Holy Land from Muslim rule. They failed to hold Jerusalem but increased trade and contact between Europe and the Middle East. Timeline: the 11th century ›
Great Zimbabwec. 1100–1450: A powerful city and trading state in southern Africa known for its massive stone walls built without mortar. It grew rich from trading gold and ivory with the Indian Ocean trade network. Timeline: the 11th century ›
Khmer Empire802–1431: A Southeast Asian empire based in modern Cambodia. It built Angkor Wat, one of the largest religious monuments in the world, and used large reservoirs and canals to support farming. Timeline: the 12th century ›
Kamakura shogunate1185–1333: Japan's first military government, in which the shogun held real power while the emperor was a figurehead. It began a long era of samurai rule and resisted two Mongol invasions. Timeline: the 12th century ›
Saladinruled 1174–1193: A Muslim sultan of Egypt and Syria who united Muslim forces against the Crusaders. He recaptured Jerusalem in 1187 and was respected even by his enemies for his chivalry. Timeline: the 12th century ›
Delhi Sultanate1206–1526: A series of Muslim dynasties that ruled much of northern India from Delhi. It brought Islamic culture and architecture to India and resisted Mongol invasions before falling to the Mughals. Timeline: the 13th century ›
Genghis Khanruled 1206–1227: The Mongol leader who united the steppe tribes and began conquests across Asia. His well-organized cavalry armies created the foundation of the vast Mongol Empire. Timeline: the 13th century ›
Mongol Empire1206–1368: The largest contiguous land empire in history, founded by Genghis Khan and stretching from Korea to Eastern Europe. It caused great destruction but also connected Eurasian trade and ideas. Timeline: the 13th century ›
Magna Carta1215: A document English barons forced King John to sign, limiting the king's power and protecting certain rights. It established that rulers must obey the law and influenced later ideas such as due process. Timeline: the 13th century ›
Golden Hordec. 1240–1502: The Mongol state that ruled the western steppe and collected tribute from the Russian princes. Its long rule shaped Russian politics, and Moscow rose by serving as its tax collector. Timeline: the 13th century ›
Mamluk Sultanate1250–1517: A state in Egypt and Syria ruled by mamluks, soldiers of enslaved origin. The Mamluks stopped the Mongol advance at Ain Jalut and drove out the last Crusaders before falling to the Ottomans. Timeline: the 13th century ›
Ilkhanate1256–1335: The Mongol state that ruled Persia, Iraq, and nearby lands, founded by Hulagu Khan. Its rulers later converted to Islam, and it encouraged cultural exchange between Persia and China. Timeline: the 13th century ›
Fall of Baghdad (1258)1258: The capture and destruction of Baghdad by a Mongol army led by Hulagu Khan. The last Abbasid caliph was killed, ending the Abbasid Caliphate and a great era of Islamic learning centered in the city. Timeline: the 13th century ›
Battle of Ain Jalut1260: A battle in Palestine in which the Mamluks of Egypt defeated a Mongol army. It was one of the first major Mongol defeats and stopped their advance into Egypt and North Africa. Timeline: the 13th century ›
Kublai Khanruled 1260–1294: A grandson of Genghis Khan who completed the conquest of China and founded the Yuan dynasty. He welcomed foreign visitors such as Marco Polo but failed in attempts to invade Japan. Timeline: the 13th century ›
Marco Polotraveled 1271–1295: A Venetian merchant who traveled to China and served at Kublai Khan's court. His book about his travels fascinated Europeans and increased their interest in trade with Asia. Timeline: the 13th century ›
Yuan dynasty1271–1368: The Mongol dynasty that ruled China, founded by Kublai Khan. It placed Mongols and foreigners above Chinese in government and encouraged trade with distant lands before being overthrown by the Ming. Timeline: the 13th century ›
Ottoman Empirec. 1299–1922: A Turkish Muslim empire that grew from a small state in Anatolia to rule southeastern Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. It lasted more than 600 years, until after World War I. Timeline: the 13th century ›
Mali Empirec. 1235–1600: A West African empire that grew rich from the gold and salt trade. Its ruler Mansa Musa made a famous pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324, and Timbuktu became a center of Islamic learning. Timeline: the 14th century ›
Ibn Battutatraveled 1325–1354: A Moroccan Muslim scholar who traveled about 75,000 miles across Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. His travel accounts are a valuable record of the 14th-century Islamic world. Timeline: the 14th century ›
Tenochtitlan1325–1521: The Aztec capital, built on an island in Lake Texcoco on the site of today's Mexico City. With causeways, canals, and floating gardens called chinampas, it was one of the largest cities in the world. Timeline: the 14th century ›
Hundred Years' War1337–1453: A series of wars between England and France over control of French lands and the French throne. France eventually won, and the conflict strengthened national identity in both countries. Timeline: the 14th century ›
Black Death1346–1353: A pandemic of bubonic plague that spread along trade routes from Asia to Europe and the Middle East. It killed perhaps a third or more of Europe's population, causing labor shortages and social change. Timeline: the 14th century ›
Ming dynasty1368–1644: A Chinese dynasty that drove out the Mongols and restored Chinese rule. It rebuilt the Great Wall, built the Forbidden City, and sponsored the voyages of Zheng He before limiting overseas trade. Timeline: the 14th century ›
Timurruled 1370–1405: A Turkic-Mongol conqueror, also called Tamerlane, who built an empire across Central Asia, Persia, and nearby lands. His violent campaigns devastated many cities, and his capital Samarkand flourished. Timeline: the 14th century ›
Western Schism1378–1417: A split in the Catholic Church when two, and later three, men claimed to be pope at the same time. It damaged the church's authority and was ended by the Council of Constance. Timeline: the 14th century ›
Joseon dynasty1392–1897: Korea's last and longest-ruling dynasty, which made Neo-Confucianism the basis of government. Under King Sejong it created hangul, the Korean alphabet still used today. Timeline: the 14th century ›
Renaissancec. 1300–1600: A cultural movement that began in Italy and revived interest in ancient Greek and Roman learning. Humanism, realistic art, and new ideas about the individual spread across Europe. Timeline: the 14th century ›
Zheng Hevoyages 1405–1433: A Ming Chinese admiral who led seven huge naval expeditions across the Indian Ocean as far as East Africa. The voyages displayed Chinese power but were stopped, and China turned inward. Timeline: the 15th century ›
Henry the Navigator1394–1460: A Portuguese prince who sponsored voyages of exploration along the west coast of Africa. His support for navigation and shipbuilding helped begin the European Age of Exploration. Timeline: the 15th century ›
Jan Husc. 1370–1415: A Czech priest and reformer who criticized church corruption and the sale of indulgences. He was burned at the stake for heresy, and his ideas influenced Martin Luther a century later. Timeline: the 15th century ›
Aztec Empire1428–1521: A Mesoamerican empire formed by an alliance of city-states led by the Mexica of Tenochtitlan. It collected tribute from conquered peoples and fell to Spanish conquistadors and their Indigenous allies. Timeline: the 15th century ›
Joan of Arcc. 1412–1431: A French peasant girl who said saints told her to help France fight England in the Hundred Years' War. She led troops to victory at Orléans but was captured and executed; she later became a national hero. Timeline: the 15th century ›
Inca Empire1438–1533: The largest empire in the Americas, stretching along the Andes Mountains of South America. It used a vast road system and knotted cords called quipu for records before falling to the Spanish. Timeline: the 15th century ›

World history: Early modern era c. 1450–1750

Gutenberg printing pressc. 1440–1455: Johannes Gutenberg's movable-type printing press in Germany. It made books much cheaper and faster to produce, spreading literacy and helping the Renaissance and the Reformation. Timeline: the 15th century ›
Fall of Constantinople1453: The capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks under Mehmed II, using large cannons. It ended the Byzantine Empire and made the city, later called Istanbul, the Ottoman capital. Timeline: the 15th century ›
Mehmed IIruled 1451–1481: The Ottoman sultan who conquered Constantinople in 1453, earning the name "the Conqueror." He made the city his capital and expanded the empire in the Balkans and Anatolia. Timeline: the 15th century ›
Songhai Empirec. 1464–1591: A large West African empire that replaced Mali and controlled trans-Saharan trade cities like Timbuktu and Gao. It fell after a Moroccan army with firearms invaded in 1591. Timeline: the 15th century ›
Medici family1434–1737: A wealthy banking family that ruled Florence, Italy, for much of this period. They were major patrons of Renaissance artists and scholars, helping make Florence a cultural center. Timeline: the 15th century ›
Bartolomeu Dias1488: A Portuguese explorer who was the first European to sail around the southern tip of Africa, the Cape of Good Hope. His voyage proved a sea route to Asia around Africa was possible. Timeline: the 15th century ›
Kingdom of Kongoc. 1390–1914: A Central African kingdom along the lower Congo River. Its rulers converted to Christianity after Portuguese contact in the 1480s, but the Atlantic slave trade badly weakened the kingdom. Timeline: the 15th century ›
Ferdinand and Isabellamarried 1469: The king and queen whose marriage united Aragon and Castile, forming the basis of Spain. In 1492 they completed the Reconquista, expelled Jews from Spain, and sponsored Columbus's voyage. Timeline: the 15th century ›
Reconquista718–1492: The centuries-long campaign by Christian kingdoms to take back the Iberian Peninsula from Muslim rule. It ended with the fall of Granada in 1492 and shaped Spain's strong Catholic identity. Timeline: the 15th century ›
Treaty of Tordesillas1494: An agreement between Spain and Portugal dividing newly explored lands along a line in the Atlantic. It explains why Brazil became Portuguese while most of the rest of Latin America became Spanish. Timeline: the 15th century ›
Vasco da Gamareached India 1498: A Portuguese explorer who sailed around Africa and reached India. His voyage opened a direct sea route between Europe and Asia, allowing Portugal to build a trading empire. Timeline: the 15th century ›
Atlantic slave tradec. 1501–1867: The forced transport of about 12.5 million enslaved Africans across the Atlantic to the Americas. It fueled plantation economies, caused enormous suffering, and devastated many African societies. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Safavid Empire1501–1736: A Persian empire that made Shia Islam the state religion of Iran. It was a rival of the Sunni Ottoman Empire, and its capital Isfahan became famous for art and architecture. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Michelangelo1475–1564: An Italian Renaissance artist who sculpted David and painted the Sistine Chapel ceiling. His powerful, lifelike works made him one of the most influential artists in history. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Battle of Chaldiran1514: A battle in which the Ottoman Empire defeated the Safavid Persians, largely through its use of cannons and firearms. It set a lasting border and deepened the Sunni–Shia rivalry between the two empires. Timeline: the 16th century ›
95 Theses1517: A list of arguments Martin Luther wrote criticizing the sale of indulgences by the Catholic Church. Spread quickly by the printing press, it sparked the Protestant Reformation. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Martin Luther1483–1546: A German monk who challenged the Catholic Church, teaching that salvation comes through faith alone and that the Bible is the highest authority. He was excommunicated and founded Lutheranism. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Protestant Reformation1517–1648: A religious movement that began when Martin Luther challenged the Catholic Church. It split Western Christianity into Catholic and Protestant churches and led to religious wars across Europe. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Charles Vruled 1516–1556: A Habsburg ruler who was king of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor, controlling a huge empire in Europe and the Americas. He fought Protestants, France, and the Ottomans before giving up his thrones. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Conquistadors16th century: Spanish and Portuguese soldiers and explorers who conquered large parts of the Americas. Using weapons, Indigenous allies, and the effect of European diseases, they toppled the Aztec and Inca empires. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Ferdinand Magellanexpedition 1519–1522: A Portuguese explorer sailing for Spain who led the first expedition to sail around the world. He was killed in the Philippines, but one of his ships completed the voyage, proving how large the Earth is. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Hernán Cortés1485–1547: A Spanish conquistador who led the conquest of the Aztec Empire from 1519 to 1521. Aided by Indigenous allies, guns, horses, and smallpox, he captured Tenochtitlan, establishing New Spain. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Suleiman the Magnificentruled 1520–1566: The Ottoman sultan whose reign marked the height of the empire's power. He expanded into Hungary and the Mediterranean and reformed the law, earning him the name "the Lawgiver." Timeline: the 16th century ›
Baburruled 1526–1530: A Central Asian ruler, descended from Timur and Genghis Khan, who invaded India and won the First Battle of Panipat. He founded the Mughal Empire. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Battle of Panipat1526: The first of three battles at Panipat in northern India, in which Babur defeated the Delhi Sultanate with cannons and firearms. The victory founded the Mughal Empire. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Mughal Empire1526–1857: A Muslim empire founded by Babur that ruled most of the Indian subcontinent. Known for its wealth and architecture like the Taj Mahal, it later declined and was replaced by British rule. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Siege of Vienna (1529)1529: An unsuccessful attempt by Suleiman the Magnificent's Ottoman army to capture Vienna. Its failure marked the high point of Ottoman expansion into Central Europe. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Francisco Pizarroc. 1478–1541: A Spanish conquistador who conquered the Inca Empire beginning in 1532. He captured and executed the Inca ruler Atahualpa, using a civil war among the Inca to his advantage. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Act of Supremacy1534: A law passed by the English Parliament making King Henry VIII head of the Church of England. It broke England away from the Catholic Church and the pope's authority. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Henry VIIIruled 1509–1547: An English king who broke with the Catholic Church when the pope would not annul his marriage. He created the Church of England and closed monasteries, taking their land and wealth. Timeline: the 16th century ›
John Calvin1509–1564: A French Protestant reformer based in Geneva who taught predestination, the belief that God has already chosen who will be saved. His ideas influenced Puritans and Presbyterians. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Society of Jesus (Jesuits)founded 1540: A Catholic religious order founded by Ignatius of Loyola as part of the Counter-Reformation. The Jesuits founded schools and sent missionaries to Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Copernicus1543: A Polish astronomer who argued that Earth and the other planets revolve around the Sun. His book, published in 1543, challenged the Earth-centered view and launched the Scientific Revolution. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Council of Trent1545–1563: A meeting of Catholic Church leaders that defined Catholic teaching in response to the Protestant Reformation. It corrected some abuses and reaffirmed traditional beliefs, key to the Counter-Reformation. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Potosí silverdiscovered 1545: A massive silver deposit in the Andes of modern Bolivia mined by the Spanish using forced Native labor. Its silver flowed to Europe and China and helped create the first global economy. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Peace of Augsburg1555: An agreement in the Holy Roman Empire letting each prince choose whether his lands would be Lutheran or Catholic. It reduced religious fighting for a time but did not recognize Calvinism. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Akbarruled 1556–1605: A Mughal emperor who expanded the empire and was known for religious tolerance. He ended a tax on non-Muslims and invited Hindus and others into his government, strengthening the empire. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Elizabeth Iruled 1558–1603: An English queen who firmly established the Church of England as Protestant. Her reign saw the defeat of the Spanish Armada and a cultural flowering that included William Shakespeare. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Eighty Years' War1568–1648: A revolt of the Dutch provinces against Spanish rule, fueled by religious and political grievances. It ended with the independence of the Dutch Republic in the Peace of Westphalia. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Battle of Lepanto1571: A naval battle in which a Christian alliance led by Spain and Venice defeated the Ottoman fleet off Greece. It ended the idea that the Ottoman navy could not be beaten in the Mediterranean. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Manilafounded 1571: The Spanish capital of the Philippines. Spanish galleons carried American silver from Mexico to Manila to trade for Chinese silk and porcelain, directly linking the Americas and Asia. Timeline: the 16th century ›
St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre1572: A wave of violence in France in which Catholic mobs killed thousands of Huguenots (French Protestants), beginning in Paris. It intensified the French Wars of Religion. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Dutch Republic1579–1795: A federation of seven Dutch provinces that broke free from Spain. Through trade, banking, and shipping, it became one of the richest nations in 17th-century Europe. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Philip II of Spainruled 1556–1598: The king of Spain at the height of its power, a strong defender of Catholicism. He fought the Dutch revolt and sent the Armada against England, and the Philippines are named after him. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Spanish Armada1588: A large fleet sent by Philip II of Spain to invade England. Its defeat by the English navy and storms weakened Spain and helped England rise as a naval power. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Toyotomi Hideyoshi1537–1598: A Japanese warlord who completed the unification of Japan in 1590. He restricted weapons to the samurai class and launched two failed invasions of Korea. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Edict of Nantes1598: A decree by King Henry IV of France granting religious freedom and civil rights to Huguenots. It ended the French Wars of Religion but was revoked by Louis XIV in 1685. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Battle of Sekigahara1600: A decisive battle in which Tokugawa Ieyasu defeated rival warlords in Japan. The victory let him found the Tokugawa shogunate, which ruled Japan for over 250 years. Timeline: the 16th century ›
Dutch East India Company1602–1799: A powerful Dutch trading company, known as the VOC, given a monopoly on trade with Asia. It could wage war and build forts, and it dominated the spice trade in what is now Indonesia. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Tokugawa shogunate1603–1868: Japan's last shogunate, founded by Tokugawa Ieyasu. It brought over two centuries of peace and strict social order, and largely closed Japan to foreign trade and influence. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Scientific Revolutionc. 1543–1700: A period when thinkers like Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton used observation and experiment to understand nature. It replaced many ancient ideas and laid the foundation for modern science. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Romanov dynasty1613–1917: The family that ruled Russia for over 300 years, beginning with Michael Romanov. Its rulers, including Peter the Great and Catherine the Great, expanded Russia until the 1917 revolution. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Thirty Years' War1618–1648: A devastating war in central Europe that began as a conflict between Protestants and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire. It ended with the Peace of Westphalia, which strengthened the idea of sovereign states. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Taj Mahalc. 1632–1653: A white marble tomb in Agra, India, built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan for his wife Mumtaz Mahal. It is the most famous example of Mughal architecture and a symbol of the empire's wealth and artistic skill. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Galileo Galilei1564–1642: Italian scientist who used an early telescope to find Jupiter's moons and support the idea that Earth circles the Sun. The Catholic Church put him on trial in 1633, but his methods helped launch the Scientific Revolution. Timeline: the 17th century ›
English Civil War1642–1651: A series of wars between supporters of King Charles I and Parliament. Parliament won, the king was executed in 1649, and England briefly became a republic, setting a precedent that rulers could be held accountable. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Qing dynasty1636–1912: China's last imperial dynasty, founded by the Manchus, who took Beijing in 1644. The Qing greatly expanded China's borders, but in the 1800s it was weakened by rebellions and foreign pressure, and it fell in 1912. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Peace of Westphalia1648: Treaties that ended the Thirty Years' War in Europe. They let rulers choose their state's religion and recognized states as independent and equal, laying the groundwork for the modern system of sovereign nations. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Charles I of Englandreigned 1625–1649: English king who clashed with Parliament over taxes, religion, and royal power. His conflict with Parliament led to the English Civil War, and his trial and execution in 1649 shocked monarchs across Europe. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Oliver Cromwell1599–1658: English general who led Parliament's army to victory in the Civil War and backed the king's execution. As Lord Protector from 1653, he ruled England as a republic and led a harsh conquest of Ireland. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Aurangzebreigned 1658–1707: Mughal emperor who pushed the empire to its largest size. His long wars in southern India and strict religious policies drained resources and stirred revolts, and the empire weakened quickly after his death. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Restoration (Charles II)1660–1685: The return of the monarchy to England in 1660, when Charles II took the throne after Cromwell's republic. It restored the Church of England and Parliament's role, but conflicts over royal power and religion continued. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Louis XIVreigned 1643–1715: King of France known as the "Sun King," a leading example of absolute monarchy. He centralized power, built the Palace of Versailles, and fought costly wars that left France powerful but deeply in debt. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Maratha Empire1674–1818: Hindu-led state in western India founded by Shivaji, crowned in 1674. The Marathas fought the Mughals, became the strongest power in India in the 1700s, and were finally defeated by the British in 1818. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Palace of Versailles1661–1715: Huge palace near Paris expanded by Louis XIV, who moved his court there in 1682. It displayed royal power and kept nobles close to the king, where they competed for favor instead of challenging him. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Isaac Newton1643–1727: English scientist whose 1687 book, the Principia, explained the laws of motion and universal gravitation. His work showed nature follows mathematical laws and became a foundation of modern physics and the Enlightenment. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Glorious Revolution1688–1689: Largely bloodless overthrow of England's Catholic King James II, replaced by William and Mary. It confirmed that Parliament, not the monarch alone, held supreme power, and inspired later American ideas about government. Timeline: the 17th century ›
English Bill of Rights1689: Law limiting the English monarch's power, passed after the Glorious Revolution. It required Parliament's consent for taxes and armies and protected free speech in Parliament, later influencing the U.S. Bill of Rights. Timeline: the 17th century ›
War of the Spanish Succession1701–1714: European war over who would inherit the Spanish throne, fought to stop France and Spain from uniting under one king. It ended with the Treaty of Utrecht and gave Britain new territory and trading rights in the Americas. Timeline: the 1700s ›
Peter the Greatreigned 1682–1725: Russian tsar who modernized Russia along Western European lines, reforming the army, government, and education. He defeated Sweden and built St. Petersburg, turning Russia into a major European power. Timeline: the 1700s ›
Acts of Union 17071707: Laws that joined England and Scotland into one country, the Kingdom of Great Britain, with a single Parliament in London. The union created the British state that later built a global empire. Timeline: the 1700s ›
Great Northern War1700–1721: War in which Russia and its allies fought Sweden for control of the Baltic Sea. Russia's victory at Poltava in 1709 and the war's end in 1721 made Russia the leading power in northern Europe. Timeline: the 1700s ›
Treaty of Utrecht1713: Peace treaties that ended the War of the Spanish Succession. Britain gained Gibraltar, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and rights to supply enslaved Africans to Spanish America, boosting its rise as a sea power. Timeline: the 1710s ›
Enlightenmentc. 1680–1800: European intellectual movement that stressed reason, science, and natural rights. Thinkers like Locke, Montesquieu, and Voltaire challenged absolute rule and inspired the American and French revolutions. Timeline: the 1710s ›
Frederick the Greatreigned 1740–1786: King of Prussia who built a powerful army and made Prussia a major European power. Known as an enlightened absolutist, he supported religious tolerance, legal reform, and the arts while keeping full control. Timeline: the 1740s ›
War of the Austrian Succession1740–1748: European war that began when Prussia seized Silesia from Austria's new ruler, Maria Theresa. Fought partly in North America as King George's War, it settled little and set up the Seven Years' War. Timeline: the 1740s ›

World history: Age of revolutions and industrialization c. 1750–1900

Seven Years' War1756–1763: Global war fought in Europe, North America, India, and at sea, with Britain and Prussia against France, Austria, and others. Britain's victory made it the leading colonial power but left it with heavy debts. Timeline: the 1750s ›
British East India Company1600–1874: English trading company that grew into a ruling power in India after winning the Battle of Plassey in 1757. It controlled much of South Asia with its own army until the British government took direct control in 1858. Timeline: the 1750s ›
Industrial Revolutionc. 1760–1840: Shift from hand production to machines and factories, beginning in Britain with textiles, steam power, and iron. It raised output and spread worldwide, but brought crowded cities, child labor, and harsh working conditions. Timeline: the 1760s ›
Adam Smith1723–1790: Scottish thinker whose 1776 book The Wealth of Nations argued that free markets, competition, and division of labor create wealth. He criticized mercantilism and became a founder of modern economics. Timeline: the 1770s ›
American Revolution1775–1783: War and political movement in which 13 British colonies won independence and formed the United States. Its ideas of natural rights and government by consent influenced revolutions in France, Haiti, and Latin America. Timeline: the 1770s ›
Steam engine1712; improved 1769–1776: Machine that turns the energy of steam into motion. Thomas Newcomen built an early version, and James Watt's more efficient design powered factories, mines, and later railroads, driving the Industrial Revolution. Timeline: the 1770s ›
Treaty of Paris1783 (also 1763): Name of several peace treaties signed in Paris. The 1763 treaty ended the Seven Years' War, giving Britain Canada; the 1783 treaty ended the American Revolution and recognized U.S. independence. Timeline: the 1780s ›
Declaration of the Rights of Man1789: Document adopted by France's National Assembly stating that all men are born free and equal in rights. Inspired by Enlightenment ideas and the American Revolution, it became a founding text of human rights. Timeline: the 1780s ›
French Revolution1789–1799: Upheaval that overthrew France's monarchy and aristocratic privileges in the name of liberty and equality. It led to the Reign of Terror and wars across Europe, and ended with Napoleon's rise to power. Timeline: the 1780s ›
Storming of the Bastille1789: Attack on July 14, 1789, when a Paris crowd seized the Bastille, a royal fortress and prison, seeking weapons. It became the symbol of the French Revolution, and July 14 is now France's national holiday. Timeline: the 1780s ›
Haitian Revolution1791–1804: Revolt of enslaved people in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, led by Toussaint Louverture and others. It created Haiti, the first nation founded by formerly enslaved people, and alarmed slaveholders everywhere. Timeline: the 1790s ›
Reign of Terror1793–1794: Period of the French Revolution when the Committee of Public Safety, led by Robespierre, executed about 17,000 people as enemies of the Revolution. It ended when Robespierre himself was arrested and executed. Timeline: the 1790s ›
Maximilien Robespierre1758–1794: Radical leader of the French Revolution who dominated the Committee of Public Safety. He championed revolutionary virtue but led the Reign of Terror, and was executed in 1794 when other leaders turned on him. Timeline: the 1790s ›
Napoleonic Wars1803–1815: Series of wars between Napoleon's France and shifting coalitions of European powers. They spread revolutionary reforms and nationalism across Europe and ended with Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo. Timeline: the 1800s ›
Napoleon Bonaparteemperor 1804–1815: French general who seized power in 1799 and crowned himself emperor in 1804. He conquered much of Europe and spread legal reforms, but was defeated in Russia and finally at Waterloo in 1815. Timeline: the 1800s ›
Napoleonic Code1804: French civil law code created under Napoleon that set equality before the law, protected property, and allowed religious freedom, but limited women's rights. It became a model for laws in many countries. Timeline: the 1800s ›
Abolition of the slave trade1807–1808 (Britain and U.S.): The movement to end the transatlantic trade in enslaved Africans. Britain and the U.S. outlawed it in 1807–1808, and Britain's navy patrolled to stop it, but slavery itself lasted for decades in many places. Timeline: the 1800s ›
Mexican War of Independence1810–1821: Struggle for Mexico's independence from Spain, begun in 1810 when priest Miguel Hidalgo called for revolt. After years of fighting, Mexico won independence in 1821. Timeline: the 1810s ›
Battle of Waterloo1815: Battle in present-day Belgium where British and Prussian armies defeated Napoleon on June 18, 1815. It ended his rule for good and closed more than 20 years of war in Europe. Timeline: the 1810s ›
Congress of Vienna1814–1815: Meeting of European powers after Napoleon's defeat to redraw borders and restore monarchies. It created a balance of power that helped prevent a major war among Europe's great powers for decades. Timeline: the 1810s ›
José de San Martín1778–1850: Argentine general who led independence movements in southern South America. He helped free Argentina, led an army across the Andes to liberate Chile, and declared Peru's independence in 1821. Timeline: the 1810s ›
Simón Bolívar1783–1830: Venezuelan leader called "the Liberator" who led wars that freed much of northern South America from Spain. He hoped to unite the region in Gran Colombia, but it broke apart soon after his death. Timeline: the 1810s ›
Greek War of Independence1821–1832: Revolt of Greeks against Ottoman rule, supported by Britain, France, and Russia. It created an independent Greece and inspired nationalist movements across Europe. Timeline: the 1820s ›
Brazilian independence1822: Brazil's break from Portugal, declared in 1822 by Pedro, son of the Portuguese king, who became Emperor Pedro I. Unlike most Latin American nations, Brazil became independent as a monarchy with little fighting. Timeline: the 1820s ›
Slavery Abolition Act1833: British law ending slavery in most of the British Empire starting in 1834. Formerly enslaved people had to serve an apprenticeship period, and slaveholders received large payments for their losses. Timeline: the 1830s ›
Opium Wars1839–1842, 1856–1860: Two wars in which Britain, later joined by France, defeated China after China tried to stop the opium trade. They forced China to open ports and accept unequal treaties, weakening the Qing dynasty. Timeline: the 1830s ›
Treaty of Nanjing1842: Treaty ending the First Opium War that forced China to give Hong Kong to Britain, open five ports to trade, and pay damages. It was the first of China's "unequal treaties" with foreign powers. Timeline: the 1840s ›
Great Famine (Ireland)1845–1852: Disaster caused by potato blight in Ireland, made worse by British policies. About one million people died and more than a million emigrated, many to the United States. Timeline: the 1840s ›
Communist Manifesto1848: Pamphlet by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels arguing that history is a struggle between classes and that workers would overthrow capitalism. It became one of the most influential political texts in history. Timeline: the 1840s ›
Karl Marx1818–1883: German philosopher and economist who co-wrote The Communist Manifesto and wrote Das Kapital. His critique of capitalism inspired socialist and communist movements around the world. Timeline: the 1840s ›
Revolutions of 18481848–1849: Wave of uprisings across Europe demanding constitutions, national unity, and workers' rights. Most were defeated within a year, but they spread liberal and nationalist ideas and ended serfdom in Austria. Timeline: the 1840s ›
Taiping Rebellion1850–1864: Massive uprising in China led by Hong Xiuquan, who sought to overthrow the Qing dynasty. One of the deadliest conflicts in history, with an estimated 20 to 30 million dead, it severely weakened the Qing. Timeline: the 1850s ›
Crimean War1853–1856: War in which Britain, France, and the Ottoman Empire fought Russia, mainly in Crimea. Russia's defeat exposed its backwardness and led to reforms, and Florence Nightingale's work transformed nursing. Timeline: the 1850s ›
Sepoy Rebellion1857–1858: Widespread revolt against the British East India Company in India, started by Indian soldiers called sepoys. After it was suppressed, the British government took direct control of India. Timeline: the 1850s ›
British Raj1858–1947: Period of direct British government rule over India after the Sepoy Rebellion. Britain built railroads and institutions but exploited India's economy, and nationalist movements eventually won independence in 1947. Timeline: the 1850s ›
Charles Darwin1809–1882: English naturalist who studied wildlife on the voyage of HMS Beagle. His 1859 book On the Origin of Species explained evolution by natural selection and transformed the study of biology. Timeline: the 1850s ›
Abolition of serfdom1861: Emancipation of Russia's serfs by Tsar Alexander II, freeing millions of peasants from bondage to landowners. Freed serfs often got poor land and heavy payments, so rural poverty and unrest continued. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Italian unification1848–1871: Process, known as the Risorgimento, that joined separate Italian states into one nation. Led by Cavour, Garibaldi, and King Victor Emmanuel II, it formed the Kingdom of Italy in 1861 with Rome as capital by 1871. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Meiji Restoration1868: Return of power to Japan's emperor after the Tokugawa shogunate fell. The new government rapidly industrialized, built a modern military, and made Japan a major world power within decades. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Suez Canalopened 1869: Canal in Egypt linking the Mediterranean and Red Seas, greatly shortening sea travel between Europe and Asia. Its importance led Britain to buy shares in 1875 and occupy Egypt in 1882. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Franco-Prussian War1870–1871: War in which Prussia and other German states quickly defeated France. It completed German unification, cost France Alsace-Lorraine, and left a bitterness that fed tensions before World War I. Timeline: the 1870s ›
German unification1866–1871: Joining of German states into one empire under Prussian leadership, guided by Otto von Bismarck through a series of wars. The German Empire, declared in 1871, quickly became Europe's leading industrial power. Timeline: the 1870s ›
Otto von Bismarck1815–1898: Prussian leader who unified Germany through short wars with Denmark, Austria, and France, creating the German Empire in 1871. As chancellor he used realpolitik and a web of alliances to keep peace in Europe. Timeline: the 1870s ›
Triple Alliance1882–1915: Secret defensive alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. It helped divide Europe into rival armed camps before World War I, though Italy left and joined the Allies in 1915. Timeline: the 1880s ›
Berlin Conference1884–1885: Meeting of European powers and the U.S., hosted by Bismarck, that set rules for claiming African land. No Africans attended; it sped up the Scramble for Africa and recognized King Leopold II's claim to the Congo. Timeline: the 1880s ›
Scramble for Africac. 1881–1914: The rapid conquest and colonization of Africa by European powers such as Britain, France, Germany, and Belgium. By 1914 only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent, and colonial borders still shape Africa today. Timeline: the 1880s ›
Congo Free State1885–1908: Central African colony owned personally by Belgium's King Leopold II. Forced labor to collect rubber caused millions of deaths, and international outrage led Belgium to take it over as the Belgian Congo in 1908. Timeline: the 1880s ›
Indian National Congressfounded 1885: Political party that began as a forum for educated Indians and became the main force in the independence movement under leaders like Gandhi and Nehru. It led independent India after 1947. Timeline: the 1880s ›
Abolition of slavery in Brazil1888: Brazil's "Golden Law," signed by Princess Isabel, freed all enslaved people, making Brazil the last nation in the Americas to end slavery. Angry slaveholders helped overthrow the monarchy the next year. Timeline: the 1880s ›
First Sino-Japanese War1894–1895: War between Qing China and Japan over control of Korea. Japan's quick victory won it Taiwan and influence over Korea, revealing China's weakness and Japan's rise as a modern military power. Timeline: the 1890s ›
Battle of Adwa1896: Battle in which Ethiopian forces under Emperor Menelik II defeated an invading Italian army. The victory kept Ethiopia independent during the Scramble for Africa and became a symbol of African resistance. Timeline: the 1890s ›
Zionism1897 onward: Movement to create a Jewish homeland in Palestine, organized by Theodor Herzl at the First Zionist Congress in 1897. It grew in response to antisemitism in Europe and led to the founding of Israel in 1948. Timeline: the 1890s ›
Empress Dowager Cixiin power 1861–1908: Powerful empress who controlled China's Qing government for nearly 50 years. She blocked the Hundred Days' Reform in 1898 and backed the Boxers, and her resistance to change weakened China against foreign powers. Timeline: the 1890s ›
Boer War1880–1881; 1899–1902: Wars between Britain and the Boer (Afrikaner) republics of southern Africa. Britain won the second war using scorched-earth tactics and camps where many civilians died, and it formed the Union of South Africa in 1910. Timeline: the 1890s ›

World history: World wars, Cold War and globalization 1900–present

Boxer Rebellion1899–1901: Uprising in northern China by a secret society that attacked foreigners and Chinese Christians. An army of eight foreign nations crushed it and forced China to pay huge damages, further weakening the Qing dynasty. Timeline: the 1900s ›
Russo-Japanese War1904–1905: War between Russia and Japan over control of Manchuria and Korea. Japan's victory, the first by an Asian nation over a European power in modern times, shocked the world and helped spark revolution in Russia. Timeline: the 1900s ›
Russian Revolution of 19051905: Uprising in Russia after troops fired on peaceful marchers on "Bloody Sunday." Strikes and mutinies forced Tsar Nicholas II to create an elected parliament, the Duma, though he kept most of his power. Timeline: the 1900s ›
Triple Entente1907: Informal alliance of France, Russia, and Britain formed through agreements between 1894 and 1907 to balance German power. Its members became the core of the Allies in World War I. Timeline: the 1900s ›
Korea annexed by Japan1910: Japan formally took over Korea after making it a protectorate in 1905. Japanese colonial rule lasted until 1945 and included harsh suppression of Korean culture and forced labor. Timeline: 1910 ›
Mexican Revolution1910–1920: Long civil war that began with a revolt against dictator Porfirio Díaz and involved leaders like Madero, Villa, and Zapata. It produced the Constitution of 1917, which promised land reform and workers' rights. Timeline: 1910 ›
Sun Yat-sen1866–1925: Chinese revolutionary who promoted the Three Principles of the People: nationalism, democracy, and people's livelihood. He briefly led the new Republic of China in 1912 and founded the Kuomintang. Timeline: 1911 ›
Xinhai Revolution1911–1912: Revolution that overthrew China's Qing dynasty and ended more than 2,000 years of imperial rule. The last emperor, Puyi, gave up the throne in 1912, and the Republic of China was founded. Timeline: 1911 ›
Archduke Franz Ferdinand1863–1914: Heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary whose assassination in Sarajevo by a Bosnian Serb nationalist in June 1914 led Austria-Hungary to declare war on Serbia. Alliances quickly turned this into World War I. Timeline: 1914 ›
World War I1914–1918: Global war between the Allies (France, Britain, Russia, later the U.S.) and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire). Trench warfare killed millions, and four empires collapsed. Timeline: 1914 ›
Armenian Genocide1915–1923: The Ottoman government's deportation and mass killing of Armenians, in which an estimated 1 million or more died. Most historians and many countries call it genocide, a term Turkey rejects. Timeline: 1915 ›
Gallipoli campaign1915–1916: Failed Allied attempt to seize the Dardanelles strait and knock the Ottoman Empire out of World War I. It caused heavy losses, shaped national identity in Australia and New Zealand, and made Mustafa Kemal famous. Timeline: 1915 ›
Battle of the Somme1916: Months-long British and French offensive in France that caused over one million casualties for small gains. The first day alone cost Britain about 57,000 casualties, and tanks were used in battle for the first time. Timeline: 1916 ›
Sykes–Picot Agreement1916: Secret agreement in which Britain and France planned to divide the Ottoman Empire's Arab lands between them. It conflicted with promises made to Arab leaders and shaped many modern Middle Eastern borders. Timeline: 1916 ›
Balfour Declaration1917: Letter from British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour supporting a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine while protecting non-Jewish communities' rights. It shaped British rule there and the Arab-Jewish conflict. Timeline: 1917 ›
Bolsheviks1903–1918: Radical faction of Russian Marxists led by Lenin, formed in a 1903 party split. They believed a small, disciplined party should lead the revolution, seized power in 1917, and became the Communist Party. Timeline: 1917 ›
Leon Trotsky1879–1940: Bolshevik leader who helped plan the October Revolution and built the Red Army that won the Russian Civil War. He lost a power struggle to Stalin, was exiled, and was killed in Mexico by a Soviet agent in 1940. Timeline: 1917 ›
October Revolution1917: Seizure of power in Petrograd by the Bolsheviks under Lenin and Trotsky, overthrowing Russia's Provisional Government. It created the world's first communist state. Timeline: 1917 ›
Russian Revolution1917: Two revolutions in Russia: in February protests forced Tsar Nicholas II to give up the throne, and in October the Bolsheviks seized power. It led to civil war and the creation of the Soviet Union. Timeline: 1917 ›
Unrestricted submarine warfare1915; 1917–1918: German policy of sinking ships, including neutral ones, without warning. Germany paused it after the Lusitania sinking, but its renewal in early 1917 was a main reason the United States entered World War I. Timeline: 1917 ›
Vladimir Lenin1870–1924: Leader of the Bolsheviks who led the October Revolution of 1917 and headed the new Soviet state. He won the Russian Civil War, introduced the New Economic Policy, and founded the Soviet Union in 1922. Timeline: 1917 ›
Armistice of 19181918: Agreement signed on November 11, 1918, that ended the fighting of World War I on the Western Front. Germany accepted harsh terms, and the date is still marked as Veterans Day in the U.S. Timeline: 1918 ›
Spanish flu1918–1920: Deadly influenza pandemic that spread worldwide as World War I ended, infecting about a third of the world's people. It killed an estimated 50 million, including about 675,000 Americans. Timeline: 1918 ›
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk1918: Peace treaty in which Soviet Russia left World War I by giving Germany vast lands, including Poland, the Baltic region, and Ukraine. It was cancelled after Germany's defeat later that year. Timeline: 1918 ›
Women's suffragec. 1893–1945: The worldwide fight for women's right to vote. New Zealand was first in 1893; many countries, including Britain, Germany, and the U.S., followed around World War I, as women's war work strengthened their case. Timeline: 1918 ›
Amritsar Massacre1919: British troops fired on an unarmed crowd in an enclosed garden in Amritsar, India, killing at least 379 people by official count. It turned many Indians, including Gandhi, firmly toward independence. Timeline: 1919 ›
Irish War of Independence1919–1921: Guerrilla war by the Irish Republican Army against British rule after Irish nationalists declared independence. It ended with a treaty creating the Irish Free State in 1922, while Northern Ireland stayed in the UK. Timeline: 1919 ›
May Fourth Movement1919: Student-led protests in Beijing against the Treaty of Versailles giving Germany's rights in Shandong to Japan. The movement spread Chinese nationalism and new ideas, and it influenced the founding of the Communist Party. Timeline: 1919 ›
Treaty of Versailles1919: Peace treaty that ended World War I with Germany, forcing it to accept blame, pay reparations, give up land, and limit its army. German anger over its terms helped the Nazis rise to power. Timeline: 1919 ›
League of Nations1920–1946: International organization created after World War I to keep the peace. The U.S. never joined, and without its own army it failed to stop aggression by Japan, Italy, and Germany; the UN replaced it. Timeline: 1920 ›
Mandate system1920–1948: League of Nations system that gave former German colonies and Ottoman lands to Allied powers like Britain and France to govern until they were judged ready for independence. Many saw it as colonialism under a new name. Timeline: 1920 ›
Chinese Communist Partyfounded 1921: Communist party founded in Shanghai that fought the Nationalists for control of China. Under Mao Zedong it won the civil war and founded the People's Republic of China in 1949. Timeline: 1921 ›
New Economic Policy1921–1928: Lenin's policy allowing small private businesses and letting peasants sell surplus crops after the Russian Civil War. It helped the economy recover, but Stalin ended it for Five-Year Plans. Timeline: 1921 ›
Benito Mussoliniruled Italy 1922–1943: Founder of fascism who became Italy's dictator after the March on Rome. He invaded Ethiopia, allied with Hitler, and led Italy into World War II; he was overthrown in 1943 and killed in 1945. Timeline: 1922 ›
Fascism1919–1945: Political movement that glorified the nation and the state, demanded one-party dictatorship under a strong leader, and crushed opposition. It began with Mussolini in Italy and inspired Hitler's Nazis. Timeline: 1922 ›
March on Rome1922: Mass demonstration by Mussolini's Fascist Blackshirts threatening to take power. Instead of resisting, King Victor Emmanuel III named Mussolini prime minister, beginning fascist rule in Italy. Timeline: 1922 ›
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk1881–1938: Ottoman officer who led the Turkish War of Independence and founded the Republic of Turkey in 1923 as its first president. He made Turkey secular and modern, adopting a Latin alphabet and giving women the vote. Timeline: 1923 ›
Kuomintang1912–1949: China's Nationalist Party, founded by Sun Yat-sen and later led by Chiang Kai-shek. It turned on its communist allies in 1927, ruled China from 1928, and retreated to Taiwan after losing the civil war in 1949. Timeline: 1927 ›
Five-Year Plan1928–1932 (first): Stalin's state plans for rapid industrial growth in the Soviet Union, paired with forced collectivization of farms. Steel and coal output soared, but at great cost, including a famine that killed millions. Timeline: 1928 ›
Joseph Stalinruled USSR c. 1924–1953: Soviet dictator who rose to power after Lenin's death. He forced rapid industrialization and terror that killed millions, led the USSR to victory in World War II, and took over Eastern Europe. Timeline: 1928 ›
Mahatma Gandhi1869–1948: Leader of India's independence movement who used nonviolent civil disobedience against British rule. India won independence in 1947, and his methods inspired later movements, including Martin Luther King Jr.'s. Timeline: 1930 ›
Salt March1930: Gandhi's 240-mile walk to the sea to make salt in protest of Britain's tax on salt. This act of nonviolent civil disobedience led to tens of thousands of arrests and drew world attention to India's cause. Timeline: 1930 ›
Mukden Incident1931: Japanese army officers staged an explosion on a railway near Mukden as an excuse to invade Manchuria. Japan set up a puppet state there and left the League of Nations, showing the League's weakness. Timeline: 1931 ›
Adolf Hitlerruled Germany 1933–1945: Nazi dictator who took power in 1933 and started World War II in Europe by invading Poland. His regime carried out the Holocaust, murdering six million Jews, before Germany's defeat in 1945. Timeline: 1933 ›
Enabling Act1933: Law passed by Germany's parliament that let Hitler's cabinet make laws without parliament's approval. It gave Hitler legal cover to become a dictator. Timeline: 1933 ›
Nazi Party1920–1945: The National Socialist German Workers' Party led by Hitler, which promoted extreme nationalism, racism, and antisemitism. It became Germany's largest party in 1932 and then its only legal party. Timeline: 1933 ›
Gulag1930s–1950s: The Soviet system of forced-labor camps, many in Siberia. Millions of people, including political prisoners, were sent there, and more than a million died from harsh conditions. Timeline: 1934 ›
Long March1934–1935: Retreat of about 6,000 miles by China's Communist forces to escape Nationalist armies. Most marchers died or left along the way, but Mao Zedong emerged as the party's leader. Timeline: 1934 ›
Italian invasion of Ethiopia1935–1936: Mussolini's conquest of Ethiopia, using modern weapons including poison gas. The League of Nations imposed only weak sanctions, showing it could not stop aggression. Timeline: 1935 ›
Nuremberg Laws1935: Nazi laws that took away German citizenship from Jews and banned marriage between Jews and other Germans. They made antisemitic persecution official law. Timeline: 1935 ›
Francisco Francoruled Spain 1939–1975: General who led the Nationalist side to victory in the Spanish Civil War and ruled Spain as a dictator. Spain stayed out of World War II and became a democracy after his death. Timeline: 1936 ›
Great Purge1936–1938: Stalin's campaign of terror against suspected enemies, including party leaders, army officers, and ordinary citizens. About 700,000 people were executed and many more sent to the Gulag. Timeline: 1936 ›
Spanish Civil War1936–1939: War between Spain's elected Republican government and Nationalist rebels led by Francisco Franco. Germany and Italy aided Franco and the Soviet Union aided the Republic; Franco's victory brought decades of dictatorship. Timeline: 1936 ›
Nanjing Massacre1937–1938: Mass killing of Chinese civilians and prisoners of war by Japanese troops after they captured Nanjing. Estimates of the dead range widely, with China citing about 300,000, and the event still strains relations. Timeline: 1937 ›
Second Sino-Japanese War1937–1945: Japan's full-scale invasion of China, which began after a clash near Beijing in 1937. It became part of World War II, millions of Chinese died, and it ended with Japan's surrender in 1945. Timeline: 1937 ›
Anschluss1938: Nazi Germany's annexation of Austria, which violated the Treaty of Versailles. Britain and France did little to stop it, encouraging Hitler's further expansion. Timeline: 1938 ›
Kristallnacht1938: Nazi-organized attacks on Jews across Germany and Austria in which synagogues were burned and Jewish shops wrecked. About 30,000 Jewish men were sent to concentration camps, a sign of worse persecution ahead. Timeline: 1938 ›
Munich Agreement1938: Deal in which Britain, France, and Italy let Nazi Germany take the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia without its consent. Seen as the peak of appeasement, it failed when Hitler seized the rest of the Czech lands in 1939. Timeline: 1938 ›
Invasion of Poland1939: Germany's attack on Poland on September 1, 1939, followed by a Soviet invasion from the east. Britain and France declared war on Germany, starting World War II in Europe. Timeline: 1939 ›
Nazi–Soviet Pact1939–1941: Nonaggression agreement between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union with a secret deal to divide Poland and Eastern Europe. It cleared the way for World War II, and Germany broke it by invading the USSR in 1941. Timeline: 1939 ›
World War II1939–1945: The deadliest war in history, fought between the Allies (including Britain, the Soviet Union, the U.S., and China) and the Axis (Germany, Italy, Japan). Tens of millions died, and the U.S. and USSR emerged as superpowers. Timeline: 1939 ›
Axis powers1936–1945: The alliance of Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Japan, formalized in the 1940 Tripartite Pact and later joined by other states. The Axis fought the Allies in World War II and was defeated in 1945. Timeline: 1940 ›
Battle of Britain1940: Air battle over Britain in which the Royal Air Force, helped by radar, fought off Germany's air force. It forced Hitler to call off his planned invasion and was Germany's first major defeat. Timeline: 1940 ›
Muslim League1906–1947: Political party founded to protect the interests of Muslims in British India. Under Muhammad Ali Jinnah it demanded a separate Muslim state in 1940, leading to the creation of Pakistan in 1947. Timeline: 1940 ›
Vichy France1940–1944: French government led by Marshal Philippe Pétain after France's defeat by Germany in 1940. It collaborated with the Nazis, including helping deport Jews, and fell when France was liberated. Timeline: 1940 ›
Winston Churchillprime minister 1940–1945, 1951–1955: British prime minister who refused to make peace with Hitler and led Britain through World War II. His speeches rallied the nation, and his 1946 "Iron Curtain" speech warned of Soviet power. Timeline: 1940 ›
Atlantic Charter1941: Statement of shared goals by Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill, including self-determination, free trade, and no territorial expansion. It later shaped the founding of the United Nations. Timeline: 1941 ›
Attack on Pearl Harbor1941: Japan's surprise air attack on the U.S. Pacific Fleet in Hawaii on December 7, 1941, killing about 2,400 Americans. The next day the U.S. declared war on Japan and entered World War II. Timeline: 1941 ›
Operation Barbarossa1941: Germany's massive invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, breaking the Nazi-Soviet Pact. It stalled outside Moscow that winter and opened the Eastern Front, where most German forces were destroyed. Timeline: 1941 ›
Battle of El Alamein1942: British victory in Egypt over German and Italian forces led by Erwin Rommel. It protected the Suez Canal and was a turning point in the North African campaign. Timeline: 1942 ›
Battle of Midway1942: U.S. naval victory in which American planes, helped by broken Japanese codes, sank four Japanese aircraft carriers. It stopped Japan's advance and turned the tide in the Pacific. Timeline: 1942 ›
Battle of Stalingrad1942–1943: Brutal battle for the Soviet city of Stalingrad, ending with the surrender of a surrounded German army in February 1943. It was a turning point on the Eastern Front, after which Soviet forces pushed west. Timeline: 1942 ›
Holocaust1941–1945: The systematic, state-sponsored murder of about six million Jews by Nazi Germany and its collaborators. Roma, disabled people, and others were also targeted, in ghettos, mass shootings, and death camps. Timeline: 1942 ›
Wannsee Conference1942: Meeting of Nazi officials near Berlin to coordinate the "Final Solution," the plan to murder all of Europe's Jews. It organized deportations of Jews from across Europe to death camps. Timeline: 1942 ›
Warsaw Ghetto Uprising1943: Armed revolt by Jews in the Warsaw Ghetto against Nazi deportations to death camps. Poorly armed fighters held out for nearly a month, the largest Jewish uprising of the war, before it was crushed. Timeline: 1943 ›
D-Day1944: Allied invasion of Normandy, France, on June 6, 1944, the largest seaborne invasion in history. It opened a second front against Germany in the west and led to the liberation of France. Timeline: 1944 ›
Auschwitz1940–1945: The largest Nazi concentration and death camp complex, in occupied Poland. About 1.1 million people were murdered there, most of them Jews, before Soviet troops liberated it in January 1945. Timeline: 1945 ›
Battle of Iwo Jima1945: Battle in which U.S. Marines captured a small Japanese island to use its airfields. Nearly 7,000 Americans and almost all of about 21,000 Japanese defenders died, and the flag-raising photo became famous. Timeline: 1945 ›
Battle of Okinawa1945: Last major battle of the Pacific War, fought on the Japanese island of Okinawa. More than 12,000 Americans and roughly 77,000 to 110,000 Japanese troops died, along with many civilians, influencing the decision to use the atomic bomb. Timeline: 1945 ›
Douglas MacArthur1880–1964: U.S. general who commanded Allied forces in the southwest Pacific in World War II and led the occupation of Japan. He commanded UN forces in Korea until President Truman fired him in 1951 for insubordination. Timeline: 1945 ›
Hiroshima1945: Japanese city destroyed by the first atomic bomb used in war, dropped by the U.S. on August 6, 1945. It killed about 70,000 to 80,000 people at once and many more later from injuries and radiation. Timeline: 1945 ›
Ho Chi Minh1890–1969: Vietnamese communist and nationalist leader who declared Vietnam's independence in 1945 and defeated France in 1954. He led North Vietnam in the war against South Vietnam and the United States. Timeline: 1945 ›
Nagasaki1945: Japanese city hit by the second U.S. atomic bomb on August 9, 1945, killing tens of thousands of people. Japan announced its surrender days later, ending World War II. Timeline: 1945 ›
Nuremberg trials1945–1946: International trials of top Nazi leaders for war crimes and crimes against humanity. Twelve were sentenced to death, and the trials established that individuals can be held responsible under international law. Timeline: 1945 ›
Potsdam Conference1945: Meeting of U.S., British, and Soviet leaders in Germany after its surrender. They agreed on the occupation of Germany and demanded Japan's unconditional surrender, while tensions grew between the Soviets and the West. Timeline: 1945 ›
Sukarnopresident 1945–1967: Leader of Indonesia's independence movement who declared independence from the Netherlands in 1945 and became the first president. He was a key voice of nonaligned nations but was pushed out by the army in the 1960s. Timeline: 1945 ›
United Nationsfounded 1945: International organization founded by 51 countries after World War II to keep peace and promote cooperation. Its Security Council has five permanent members with veto power, and it replaced the League of Nations. Timeline: 1945 ›
Yalta Conference1945: Meeting of Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin in Crimea to plan the postwar world. They agreed to divide Germany into zones and the Soviets promised free elections in Eastern Europe, a promise they did not keep. Timeline: 1945 ›
Iron Curtain1946–1989: Winston Churchill's term for the line dividing Soviet-controlled Eastern Europe from the democratic West. It became a symbol of the Cold War until communist governments fell in 1989. Timeline: 1946 ›
Cold War1947–1991: Long rivalry between the U.S. and its allies and the Soviet Union and its allies. It featured an arms race, the space race, and proxy wars like Korea and Vietnam, and ended when the Soviet Union collapsed. Timeline: 1947 ›
Jawaharlal Nehruprime minister 1947–1964: Independence leader and close ally of Gandhi who became India's first prime minister. He built a secular democracy, promoted state-led industry, and kept India nonaligned in the Cold War. Timeline: 1947 ›
Partition of India1947: Division of British India into two independent nations, mostly Hindu India and mostly Muslim Pakistan. About 15 million people were uprooted and hundreds of thousands killed in violence between religious groups. Timeline: 1947 ›
Truman Doctrine1947: President Truman's pledge to help nations resist communist takeover, starting with aid to Greece and Turkey. It launched the U.S. policy of containment in the Cold War. Timeline: 1947 ›
UN Partition Plan for Palestine1947: UN plan to divide British-ruled Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states, with Jerusalem under international control. Jewish leaders accepted it and Arab leaders rejected it, and fighting soon broke out. Timeline: 1947 ›
1948 Arab–Israeli War1948–1949: War between Israel and neighboring Arab states after Israel declared independence. Israel won and gained more land than the UN plan offered, while about 700,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were driven from their homes. Timeline: 1948 ›
Apartheid1948–1994: A system of laws in South Africa that strictly separated people by race and kept the white minority in power. Decades of resistance and international pressure ended it, leading to free elections in 1994. Timeline: 1948 ›
Berlin Airlift1948–1949: U.S. and British planes flew food and fuel into West Berlin for about a year after the Soviets blocked all land routes. The Soviets lifted the blockade, and the crisis helped lead to NATO and a divided Germany. Timeline: 1948 ›
Marshall Plan1948–1952: A U.S. program that gave about $13 billion to help Western European countries rebuild after World War II. It revived their economies, tied them closer to the U.S., and aimed to limit the appeal of communism. Timeline: 1948 ›
State of Israel1948: Jewish state declared by David Ben-Gurion on May 14, 1948, as British rule in Palestine ended. The U.S. recognized it right away, and neighboring Arab states invaded the next day. Timeline: 1948 ›
Universal Declaration of Human Rights1948: Document adopted by the UN General Assembly listing basic rights all people should have. Eleanor Roosevelt chaired the drafting committee, and though not legally binding, it shaped later human rights laws. Timeline: 1948 ›
Chiang Kai-shek1887–1975: Leader of China's Nationalist Party who fought both Japan and the Communists. After losing the civil war in 1949, he moved his government to Taiwan, which he ruled until his death with U.S. support. Timeline: 1949 ›
Chinese Civil War1945–1949: A war between Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalists and Mao Zedong's Communists, which resumed after World War II. The Communists won in 1949, and the Nationalists retreated to the island of Taiwan. Timeline: 1949 ›
Mao Zedong1893–1976: Leader of the Chinese Communist Party who founded the People's Republic of China in 1949. His policies, including the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, transformed China but caused tens of millions of deaths. Timeline: 1949 ›
NATO1949: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, a military alliance of the U.S., Canada, and Western European nations formed in 1949. Members agreed that an attack on one would be treated as an attack on all, to deter the Soviet Union. Timeline: 1949 ›
People's Republic of China1949: The communist state proclaimed by Mao Zedong on October 1, 1949, after the Communists won the Chinese Civil War. It brought the world's most populous country under communist rule, reshaping the Cold War. Timeline: 1949 ›
Korean War1950–1953: A war that began when communist North Korea invaded South Korea. The U.S. led United Nations forces for the South, and China backed the North. It ended in an armistice near the original border, leaving Korea divided. Timeline: 1950 ›
Mau Mau Uprising1952–1960: An armed revolt in Kenya, mainly by Kikuyu people, against British colonial rule and the loss of their land. Britain crushed it harshly, but the conflict sped up Kenya's path to independence in 1963. Timeline: 1952 ›
1953 Iranian coup1953: The overthrow of Iran's elected prime minister, Mohammad Mosaddegh, organized with help from U.S. and British intelligence after he nationalized Iran's oil. It strengthened the Shah's rule and fueled later anti-American anger. Timeline: 1953 ›
Algerian War1954–1962: A war in which Algerian nationalists fought for independence from France. It was long and brutal on both sides, toppled a French government, and ended with Algeria becoming independent in 1962. Timeline: 1954 ›
Battle of Dien Bien Phu1954: A battle in which Vietnamese forces led by the Viet Minh surrounded and defeated a French army in northern Vietnam. The loss ended French colonial rule in Indochina and led to the Geneva peace talks. Timeline: 1954 ›
Domino theory1954: The Cold War belief, stated by President Eisenhower, that if one country in a region fell to communism, its neighbors would follow like falling dominoes. It was used to justify U.S. involvement in Vietnam. Timeline: 1954 ›
Geneva Accords1954: Agreements that ended France's war in Indochina and temporarily divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel, with national elections planned for 1956. The elections never took place, setting the stage for the Vietnam War. Timeline: 1954 ›
Bandung Conference1955: A meeting in Indonesia of 29 Asian and African nations, many newly independent. They called for an end to colonialism and for cooperation outside the Cold War blocs, laying groundwork for the Non-Aligned Movement. Timeline: 1955 ›
Warsaw Pact1955–1991: A military alliance of the Soviet Union and the communist countries of Eastern Europe, created in response to West Germany joining NATO. It was used to keep Eastern Europe under Soviet control and dissolved in 1991. Timeline: 1955 ›
De-Stalinization1956–1961: Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev's effort to reject Joseph Stalin's harsh rule and cult of personality, begun with a 1956 speech criticizing Stalin. It eased some repression and encouraged reform hopes in Eastern Europe. Timeline: 1956 ›
Gamal Abdel Nasserled Egypt 1954–1970: Egyptian leader who took power after the overthrow of the monarchy and became a hero of Arab nationalism. His takeover of the Suez Canal in 1956 caused an international crisis that raised his standing across the Arab world. Timeline: 1956 ›
Hungarian Revolution of 19561956: A nationwide uprising in Hungary against the communist government and Soviet control. Soviet troops and tanks crushed it within weeks, showing that Moscow would use force to keep its hold on Eastern Europe. Timeline: 1956 ›
Nikita KhrushchevSoviet leader 1953–1964: Leader of the Soviet Union after Stalin. He denounced Stalin's crimes, crushed the Hungarian uprising, and clashed with the U.S. over Berlin and Cuba. He was removed from power by other party leaders in 1964. Timeline: 1956 ›
Suez Crisis1956: A crisis that began when Egypt's Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, and Britain, France, and Israel invaded. Pressure from the U.S. and the Soviet Union forced them to withdraw, showing that Britain and France's power had declined. Timeline: 1956 ›
European Economic Community1957–1993: An organization created by the 1957 Treaty of Rome to build a common market among six Western European countries, later more. It promoted trade and cooperation and became the core of the European Union in 1993. Timeline: 1957 ›
Kwame Nkrumahled Ghana 1957–1966: Leader of the movement that made Ghana, in 1957, one of the first sub-Saharan African colonies to win independence from Britain. A champion of Pan-Africanism, he later ruled as a one-party leader and was overthrown in 1966. Timeline: 1957 ›
Space Race1957–1975: Cold War competition between the U.S. and the Soviet Union to achieve firsts in space exploration. The Soviets launched the first satellite and first human in orbit; the U.S. landed the first people on the Moon in 1969. Timeline: 1957 ›
Sputnik1957: The first artificial satellite, launched by the Soviet Union in October 1957. It shocked Americans, who feared falling behind in technology, and led the U.S. to create NASA and spend more on science education. Timeline: 1957 ›
Charles de Gaulle1890–1970: French general who led the Free French against Nazi Germany in World War II and later founded France's Fifth Republic, serving as president from 1959 to 1969. He granted Algeria independence and pursued a foreign policy independent of the U.S. Timeline: 1958 ›
Cuban Revolution1953–1959: An armed revolt led by Fidel Castro that overthrew Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista in January 1959. Castro's government soon allied with the Soviet Union, bringing the Cold War to a country 90 miles from Florida. Timeline: 1959 ›
Fidel Castro1926–2016: Revolutionary leader who took power in Cuba in 1959 and ruled until 2008. He created a communist state allied with the Soviet Union, survived U.S. efforts to remove him, and became a symbol of resistance to the U.S. Timeline: 1959 ›
Decolonizationc. 1945–1975: The process by which colonies in Asia, Africa, and elsewhere won independence from European empires after World War II. Dozens of new nations formed, sometimes peacefully and sometimes through long wars. Timeline: 1960 ›
Bay of Pigs Invasion1961: A failed invasion of Cuba by about 1,400 Cuban exiles trained and backed by the CIA, aimed at overthrowing Fidel Castro. Its quick defeat embarrassed President Kennedy and pushed Cuba closer to the Soviet Union. Timeline: 1961 ›
Berlin Wall1961–1989: A guarded wall built by communist East Germany to stop its people from fleeing to West Berlin. It became the most famous symbol of the Cold War divide between East and West until it was opened in 1989. Timeline: 1961 ›
Non-Aligned Movement1961: A group of countries, founded in 1961 and led by leaders such as India's Nehru, Egypt's Nasser, and Yugoslavia's Tito, that refused to formally join either the U.S. or Soviet bloc during the Cold War. Timeline: 1961 ›
Cuban Missile Crisis1962: A 13-day standoff after the U.S. discovered Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba. It was the closest the Cold War came to nuclear war and ended when the Soviets removed the missiles and the U.S. pledged not to invade Cuba. Timeline: 1962 ›
Freedom Summer1964: A 1964 campaign in which civil rights groups brought hundreds of volunteers, many of them white college students, to Mississippi to register Black voters. The murder of three workers drew national attention to violence in the South. Timeline: 1964 ›
Palestine Liberation Organizationfounded 1964: An umbrella organization founded in 1964 to represent Palestinians and seek a Palestinian state. Led by Yasser Arafat from 1969, it used armed struggle but later recognized Israel in the 1993 Oslo Accords. Timeline: 1964 ›
Viet Cong1960–1975: The name used for the communist-led guerrilla fighters in South Vietnam, organized as the National Liberation Front and backed by North Vietnam. They fought U.S. and South Vietnamese forces using hit-and-run tactics. Timeline: 1965 ›
Vietnam War1955–1975: A war between communist North Vietnam and U.S.-backed South Vietnam. The U.S. sent hundreds of thousands of troops, and about 58,000 Americans died. It divided Americans and ended with a communist victory in 1975. Timeline: 1965 ›
Cultural Revolution1966–1976: A campaign launched by Mao Zedong to purge China of his rivals and 'old' ideas. Young Red Guards attacked teachers, officials, and cultural sites; millions were persecuted, and the country was thrown into chaos. Timeline: 1966 ›
Nigerian Civil War1967–1970: A war fought after the southeastern region of Nigeria declared independence as Biafra. Nigeria's government won, but a blockade caused a severe famine, and an estimated 500,000 to 2 million civilians died. Timeline: 1967 ›
Six-Day War1967: A short war in which Israel defeated Egypt, Syria, and Jordan. Israel took control of the Sinai, Gaza Strip, West Bank, East Jerusalem, and Golan Heights, which reshaped the Arab-Israeli conflict. Timeline: 1967 ›
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty1968: An international treaty signed in 1968 and in force from 1970 to stop the spread of nuclear weapons. Countries without them agreed not to build them, and nuclear powers agreed to work toward disarmament. Timeline: 1968 ›
Prague Spring1968: A period of reform in Czechoslovakia under Alexander Dubček, who tried to create 'socialism with a human face' with more freedom of speech. In August 1968, Soviet-led Warsaw Pact troops invaded and ended it. Timeline: 1968 ›
Tet Offensive1968: A wave of surprise attacks by North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces on cities across South Vietnam during the Tet holiday. Though a military defeat for the attackers, it convinced many Americans the war could not be won quickly. Timeline: 1968 ›
Vietnamization1969–1972: President Nixon's policy of training and equipping South Vietnamese forces to take over the fighting so U.S. troops could gradually withdraw. South Vietnam fell to the North in 1975, two years after U.S. combat forces left. Timeline: 1969 ›
SALT I1972: The first Strategic Arms Limitation Talks agreements between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, signed in 1972. They limited missile defense systems and froze the number of certain nuclear missiles, a key step in détente. Timeline: 1972 ›
1973 oil crisis1973–1974: A crisis that began when Arab oil-producing nations stopped selling oil to the U.S. and others that supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War. Oil prices roughly quadrupled, causing gas shortages and economic trouble. Timeline: 1973 ›
Augusto Pinochetruled Chile 1973–1990: Chilean general who seized power in a 1973 coup against Salvador Allende and ruled as a dictator. His government killed or made thousands of opponents disappear while pursuing free-market economic reforms. Timeline: 1973 ›
OPECfounded 1960: The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, a group of oil-producing nations that coordinates oil production and prices. Its power became clear during the 1970s oil crises, when prices rose sharply. Timeline: 1973 ›
Salvador Allendepresident 1970–1973: A Marxist elected president of Chile in 1970 who nationalized industries, including U.S.-owned copper mines. The U.S. opposed his government, and he died during a military coup in September 1973. Timeline: 1973 ›
Yom Kippur War1973: A war that began when Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on Israel on the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur. Israel recovered and pushed back, and the war led to an Arab oil embargo against the U.S. Timeline: 1973 ›
Fall of Saigon1975: The capture of Saigon, South Vietnam's capital, by North Vietnamese forces on April 30, 1975. Americans and some Vietnamese were evacuated by helicopter, and the event marked the end of the Vietnam War. Timeline: 1975 ›
Khmer Rougeruled Cambodia 1975–1979: A communist group that ruled Cambodia under Pol Pot. It forced people out of cities into labor camps and killed perceived enemies; about 1.5 to 2 million people died. A Vietnamese invasion removed it in 1979. Timeline: 1975 ›
Pol Pot1925–1998: Leader of Cambodia's Khmer Rouge regime from 1975 to 1979. His policies of forced labor, starvation, and mass executions caused the deaths of roughly a quarter of Cambodia's population. Timeline: 1975 ›
Camp David Accords1978: Peace agreements between Egypt's Anwar Sadat and Israel's Menachem Begin, negotiated by President Carter at Camp David. They led to a 1979 peace treaty, making Egypt the first Arab country to recognize Israel. Timeline: 1978 ›
Deng Xiaoping1904–1997: China's top leader from about 1978 into the 1990s. He opened China to foreign trade and introduced market reforms that fueled rapid economic growth, while keeping Communist Party control and ordering the 1989 Tiananmen crackdown. Timeline: 1978 ›
Ayatollah Khomeini1902–1989: Iranian Shiite cleric who led the 1979 revolution against the Shah from exile and became Iran's Supreme Leader. He established a government based on religious law and opposed the U.S. and Israel. Timeline: 1979 ›
Iranian Revolution1978–1979: A revolution that overthrew Iran's Shah, a U.S. ally, and created an Islamic republic led by Ayatollah Khomeini. It shifted power in the Middle East and made Iran strongly hostile to the U.S. Timeline: 1979 ›
Margaret Thatcherprime minister 1979–1990: Britain's first woman prime minister. A Conservative, she cut the power of labor unions, sold state-owned industries, and promoted free markets. She was a close Cold War ally of President Reagan. Timeline: 1979 ›
One-child policy1980–2015: A Chinese government policy that limited most couples to one child to slow population growth. It was enforced with fines and sometimes forced measures, and it led to an aging population and a gender imbalance. Timeline: 1979 ›
Sandinistas1979–1990: A leftist revolutionary group that overthrew Nicaragua's dictator Anastasio Somoza in 1979 and formed a government. The U.S. backed rebels called the Contras against them, and they lost power in a 1990 election. Timeline: 1979 ›
Soviet–Afghan War1979–1989: A war in which the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to support its communist government against Islamic fighters called mujahideen, who were aided by the U.S. The costly war weakened the Soviet Union. Timeline: 1979 ›
Solidarityfounded 1980: An independent trade union in communist Poland, led by Lech Wałęsa, that grew into a mass movement for workers' rights and freedom. After years of repression, it won elections in 1989, helping end communism in Eastern Europe. Timeline: 1980 ›
Mikhail GorbachevSoviet leader 1985–1991: The last leader of the Soviet Union. His reforms of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) and his refusal to use force in Eastern Europe helped end the Cold War, but the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991. Timeline: 1985 ›
Chernobyl disaster1986: An explosion and fire at a nuclear power plant in Soviet Ukraine that released large amounts of radiation across Europe. It was the worst nuclear accident in history and exposed the Soviet government's secrecy. Timeline: 1986 ›
Intifada1987–1993; 2000–2005: An Arabic word for 'uprising,' used for two Palestinian revolts against Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza. The first included mass protests and strikes; the second was more violent, with many deaths on both sides. Timeline: 1987 ›
Fall of the Berlin Wall1989: The opening of the Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989, when East Germany allowed its citizens to cross freely and crowds began tearing it down. It became the symbol of the end of the Cold War and led to German reunification. Timeline: 1989 ›
Revolutions of 19891989: A wave of mostly peaceful revolutions in which communist governments fell in Poland, Hungary, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and Romania. They ended Soviet control of Eastern Europe. Timeline: 1989 ›
Tiananmen Square protests1989: Student-led protests in Beijing calling for political reform and free speech. On June 3–4, 1989, the Chinese government sent troops and tanks to clear the square, killing hundreds or possibly thousands of people. Timeline: 1989 ›
German reunification1990: The joining of East Germany and West Germany into one country on October 3, 1990, less than a year after the Berlin Wall fell. It ended the division of Germany that began after World War II. Timeline: 1990 ›
Saddam Husseinpresident of Iraq 1979–2003: Iraq's dictator who started a long war with Iran and invaded Kuwait in 1990, leading to the Gulf War. A U.S.-led invasion removed him from power in 2003, and he was executed in 2006. Timeline: 1990 ›
Boris Yeltsinpresident of Russia 1991–1999: The first elected president of Russia. He stood against the 1991 coup attempt in Moscow and helped end the Soviet Union, but his fast shift to a market economy brought hardship and corruption. Timeline: 1991 ›
Dissolution of the Soviet Union1991: The breakup of the Soviet Union into 15 independent countries in December 1991, after a failed hard-line coup weakened the central government. It ended the Cold War and left the U.S. as the only superpower. Timeline: 1991 ›
Gulf War1990–1991: A war in which a U.S.-led coalition of many nations drove Iraqi forces out of Kuwait after Saddam Hussein's invasion. The air and ground campaign, called Operation Desert Storm, lasted about six weeks. Timeline: 1991 ›
World Wide Web1989–1991: A system for linking and viewing pages over the internet, invented by British scientist Tim Berners-Lee at CERN. Made free for anyone to use in 1993, it turned the internet into a tool used by billions of people. Timeline: 1991 ›
Maastricht Treaty1992: A treaty signed in 1992 that created the European Union and set the path toward a shared currency, the euro. It expanded cooperation among European countries beyond trade to foreign policy and justice. Timeline: 1992 ›
Yugoslav Wars1991–2001: A series of wars as Yugoslavia broke apart along ethnic lines into new countries such as Croatia, Bosnia, and Kosovo. They included ethnic cleansing and the 1995 Srebrenica massacre, in which about 8,000 Bosniak men and boys were killed. Timeline: 1992 ›
European Unionfounded 1993: A political and economic union of European countries that shares a single market and, for most members, a common currency, the euro. It grew to include much of Eastern Europe; Britain left in 2020. Timeline: 1993 ›
Oslo Accords1993–1995: Agreements in which Israel and the PLO recognized each other and created the Palestinian Authority with limited self-rule in parts of the West Bank and Gaza. They raised hopes for peace, but final issues were never settled. Timeline: 1993 ›
Yasser Arafat1929–2004: Leader of the Palestine Liberation Organization from 1969 until his death. Long seen by Israel as a terrorist leader, he signed the Oslo Accords in 1993 and shared the Nobel Peace Prize in 1994. Timeline: 1993 ›
African National Congressfounded 1912: South Africa's main movement against white minority rule and apartheid, led by figures such as Nelson Mandela. Banned for decades, it won the first free elections in 1994 and has governed South Africa since. Timeline: 1994 ›
Nelson Mandela1918–2013: Leader of the African National Congress who spent 27 years in prison for opposing apartheid. After his release in 1990, he helped negotiate its end and became South Africa's first Black president in 1994. Timeline: 1994 ›
Rwandan genocide1994: The mass killing of about 800,000 people, mostly ethnic Tutsi, by Hutu extremists in Rwanda over about 100 days. The world failed to act to stop it, which led to later debate about international responsibility. Timeline: 1994 ›
World Trade Organizationfounded 1995: An international organization founded in 1995 to set rules for trade between nations and settle trade disputes. It promoted globalization; China's joining in 2001 was a major step in expanding world trade. Timeline: 1995 ›
Hong Kong handover1997: The return of Hong Kong from British to Chinese rule on July 1, 1997. China promised to keep Hong Kong's separate system and freedoms for 50 years under the idea of 'one country, two systems.' Timeline: 1997 ›
Kyoto Protocol1997: An international agreement under which developed countries pledged to cut greenhouse gas emissions to slow climate change. It took effect in 2005, but the U.S. never ratified it, which limited its impact. Timeline: 1997 ›
Good Friday Agreement1998: A peace agreement that largely ended 'the Troubles,' decades of violence in Northern Ireland between mostly Catholic nationalists and mostly Protestant unionists. It set up a power-sharing government. Timeline: 1998 ›
Kosovo War1998–1999: A conflict between Serbian forces and ethnic Albanian fighters in Kosovo. After reports of ethnic cleansing, NATO bombed Serbia for 78 days, forcing Serbian forces to withdraw. Kosovo later declared independence. Timeline: 1999 ›
Vladimir Putinpresident 2000–2008, 2012–: Former KGB officer who has led Russia as president or prime minister since 1999. He centralized power and limited opposition and press freedom, and ordered the 2014 seizure of Crimea and the 2022 invasion of Ukraine. Timeline: 2000 ›
Al-Qaedafounded c. 1988: An Islamist terrorist network founded by Osama bin Laden. It carried out the September 11 attacks and earlier bombings of U.S. embassies in Africa, and became the main target of the War on Terror. Timeline: 2001 ›
Osama bin Laden1957–2011: Saudi-born founder and leader of al-Qaeda, the terrorist group behind the September 11 attacks. He was killed in a U.S. special forces raid in Pakistan in 2011. Timeline: 2001 ›
September 11 attacks2001: Coordinated terrorist attacks by al-Qaeda, which hijacked four planes and crashed them into the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and a Pennsylvania field, killing nearly 3,000 people. They led to the War on Terror. Timeline: 2001 ›
War in Afghanistan2001–2021: A war that began when the U.S. and its allies invaded Afghanistan after the September 11 attacks to defeat al-Qaeda and remove the Taliban. It became the longest war in U.S. history and ended with the Taliban back in power. Timeline: 2001 ›
Iraq War2003–2011: A war that began when a U.S.-led coalition invaded Iraq and overthrew Saddam Hussein, citing weapons of mass destruction that were never found. A long insurgency and sectarian violence followed, and the war became very controversial. Timeline: 2003 ›
Arab Spring2010–2012: A wave of protests and uprisings across the Arab world that began in Tunisia. Leaders fell in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, and Yemen, but most countries did not become stable democracies, and Syria fell into civil war. Timeline: 2011 ›
Annexation of Crimea2014: Russia's seizure of the Crimean Peninsula from Ukraine in 2014, after sending troops and holding a disputed referendum. Most of the world did not recognize it, and Western countries placed sanctions on Russia. Timeline: 2014 ›
ISISdeclared caliphate 2014–2019: The Islamic State, an extremist group that seized large parts of Iraq and Syria and declared a 'caliphate' in 2014. Known for brutal violence and terrorist attacks abroad, it lost its last territory in 2019. Timeline: 2014 ›
Paris Agreement2015: An international climate agreement in which nearly every country set its own goals to cut greenhouse gas emissions and limit global warming. U.S. participation has changed with different presidents. Timeline: 2015 ›
Brexit2016–2020: The United Kingdom's exit from the European Union, approved by voters in a 2016 referendum and completed in January 2020. It caused years of political turmoil in Britain and changed its trade ties with Europe. Timeline: 2016 ›
COVID-19 pandemic2020–2023: A global outbreak of a new coronavirus first identified in China in late 2019. It killed millions of people worldwide, including over a million Americans, and led to lockdowns, school closures, and fast development of vaccines. Timeline: 2020 ›
Russian invasion of Ukraine2022–: Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine launched in February 2022, expanding a conflict that began in 2014. It became the largest war in Europe since World War II, and Western nations sent Ukraine aid and sanctioned Russia. Timeline: 2022 ›

U.S. history: Native America and European contact 1491–1607

Christopher Columbusvoyages 1492–1504: An Italian navigator sailing for Spain who reached the Caribbean in 1492 while seeking a western route to Asia. His voyages began lasting contact and colonization between Europe and the Americas. Timeline: the 15th century ›
Columbian Exchangefrom 1492: The transfer of plants, animals, people, and diseases between the Americas and Europe, Africa, and Asia. Crops like potatoes and corn fed new populations, while diseases killed millions of Native Americans. Timeline: the 15th century ›
Encomienda systemfrom 1503: A Spanish colonial system that gave colonists the right to demand labor and tribute from Native people in exchange for supposed protection and religious instruction. In practice it led to severe abuse. Timeline: the 16th century ›

U.S. history: Colonial America 1607–1754

Jamestownfounded 1607: The first permanent English settlement in North America, in Virginia. After early starvation and conflict with the Powhatan, it survived by growing tobacco for export. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Powhatanc. 1600–1646: A confederacy of Algonquian-speaking peoples in eastern Virginia, and the title of its paramount chief, Wahunsenacah. They traded and fought with the Jamestown colonists, losing most of their land by 1646. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Mayflower1620: The English ship that carried the Pilgrims and other settlers across the Atlantic to Plymouth, Massachusetts. Before landing, the passengers signed the Mayflower Compact. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Mayflower Compact1620: An agreement signed by the male passengers of the Mayflower to form a government and obey its laws. It was an early example of self-government by consent in the American colonies. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Pilgrimsarrived 1620: English Separatists who left the Church of England and sailed on the Mayflower to seek religious freedom. They founded Plymouth Colony, and their 1621 harvest feast is remembered as the first Thanksgiving. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Plymouth Colony1620–1691: The English colony in Massachusetts founded by the Pilgrims. With help from the Wampanoag people, it survived early hardships; it was later merged into the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Timeline: the 17th century ›
New Netherland1614–1664: The Dutch colony in North America, centered on the Hudson River valley. Founded mainly for the fur trade, it was taken by England in 1664 and became New York and New Jersey. Timeline: the 17th century ›
New Amsterdam1625–1664: The Dutch settlement on Manhattan Island, capital of New Netherland. It was a diverse trading town, and after the English took it in 1664 it was renamed New York. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Massachusetts Bay Colony1630–1691: A colony founded by Puritans under John Winthrop, who hoped to build a model Christian community. It grew quickly, centered on Boston, and expelled dissenters such as Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Puritans1620s–1690s: English Protestants who wanted to purify the Church of England. Thousands settled Massachusetts Bay from 1630, shaping New England's town meetings, schools, strict moral codes, and sense of being a model community. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Roger Williamsc. 1603–1683: Puritan minister banished from Massachusetts for his views, who founded Providence, Rhode Island, in 1636. He argued for separating church and state, religious freedom, and paying Native people fairly for land. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Pequot War1636–1638: Conflict between the Pequot people and New England colonists allied with the Narragansett and Mohegan. Colonists killed hundreds at a Pequot village near Mystic, breaking Pequot power and opening the region to English settlement. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Anne Hutchinson1591–1643: Puritan woman who led religious discussions in Boston and challenged ministers' authority. Massachusetts put her on trial and banished her in 1638, a case that showed the colony's limits on dissent and on women's roles. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Navigation Acts1651–1696: English laws requiring colonial trade to use English or colonial ships and send key goods like tobacco through England. Based on mercantilism, they enriched England, and later stricter enforcement angered colonists. Timeline: the 17th century ›
King Philip's War1675–1676: War between New England colonists and Native nations led by the Wampanoag leader Metacom, called King Philip by the English. One of the deadliest wars per capita in American history, it ended most Native resistance in southern New England. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Bacon's Rebellion1676: Uprising in Virginia led by Nathaniel Bacon, in which poor settlers and servants attacked Native Americans and burned Jamestown. It pushed Virginia's elite to rely more on enslaved Africans instead of indentured servants. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Pueblo Revolt1680: Uprising of Pueblo peoples in New Mexico, led by Popé, against Spanish rule and the suppression of their religion. They drove the Spanish out for 12 years, the most successful Native revolt against colonizers in North America. Timeline: the 17th century ›
William Penn1644–1718: English Quaker who founded Pennsylvania in 1681 as a "holy experiment." The colony offered religious freedom, a representative assembly, and fairer dealings with the Lenape, attracting diverse settlers. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Salem witch trials1692–1693: Series of trials in colonial Massachusetts in which more than 200 people were accused of witchcraft and 20 were executed. They became a lasting example of mass hysteria and the danger of trials without fair evidence. Timeline: the 17th century ›
Georgia Colony (Oglethorpe)1732–1752: Last of the 13 colonies, founded in 1733 by James Oglethorpe as a buffer against Spanish Florida and a fresh start for poor English settlers. It first banned slavery but allowed it from 1751, becoming a plantation colony. Timeline: the 1730s ›
Zenger trial1735: Trial of New York printer John Peter Zenger for printing criticism of the royal governor. The jury found him not guilty because what he printed was true, an early step toward freedom of the press in America. Timeline: the 1730s ›
Stono Rebellion1739: The largest uprising of enslaved people in Britain's mainland colonies, near Charleston, South Carolina. After it was crushed, South Carolina passed harsher laws restricting enslaved people's movement, gatherings, and learning. Timeline: the 1730s ›
Great Awakening1730s–1740s: Religious revival in the American colonies led by preachers like Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield. It stressed personal faith, divided churches, encouraged questioning authority, and created shared colonial experiences. Timeline: the 1740s ›

U.S. history: Revolution and the new nation 1754–1800

French and Indian War1754–1763: War between Britain and France, each with Native allies, for control of North America. Britain won Canada and lands east of the Mississippi, but its war debt led to new colonial taxes that sparked the Revolution. Timeline: the 1750s ›
Pontiac's War1763–1766: War launched by a coalition of Native nations around the Great Lakes, led partly by the Ottawa leader Pontiac, against British forts and settlements. It pushed Britain to issue the Proclamation of 1763. Timeline: the 1760s ›
Proclamation of 17631763: British order banning colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains to reduce conflict with Native Americans. Many colonists ignored and resented it, seeing it as Britain blocking land they had fought for. Timeline: the 1760s ›
Quartering Act1765: British law requiring colonies to house and supply British soldiers stationed in America. Colonists saw it as taxation without consent and a threat to liberty; a stricter version followed in 1774. Timeline: the 1760s ›
Sons of Liberty1765–1776: Secret groups of colonial patriots, including Samuel Adams, formed to resist the Stamp Act. They organized protests, boycotts, and the Boston Tea Party, spreading opposition to British rule across the colonies. Timeline: the 1760s ›
Stamp Act1765–1766: British tax on printed materials in the colonies, such as newspapers and legal papers. Colonists protested "no taxation without representation" and boycotted British goods, and Parliament repealed it in 1766. Timeline: the 1760s ›
Boston Massacre1770: Clash in which British soldiers fired into a crowd of protesters in Boston, killing five colonists, including Crispus Attucks. Patriots used it as propaganda to stir anger against British troops and rule. Timeline: the 1770s ›
Boston Tea Party1773: Protest in which Sons of Liberty members dumped 342 chests of British East India Company tea into Boston Harbor. Britain responded with the Intolerable Acts, pushing the colonies closer to revolution. Timeline: the 1770s ›
Tea Act1773: British law that helped the struggling East India Company sell tea directly to the colonies at a low price that still included a tax. Colonists saw it as a trick to make them accept taxation, leading to the Boston Tea Party. Timeline: the 1770s ›
First Continental Congress1774: Meeting in Philadelphia of delegates from 12 colonies responding to the Intolerable Acts. They agreed on a boycott of British goods and declared colonial rights, a major step toward united action. Timeline: the 1770s ›
Intolerable Acts1774: Colonists' name for laws punishing Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party, such as closing Boston's port and limiting town meetings. Instead of isolating Boston, they united the colonies against Britain. Timeline: the 1770s ›
Quebec Act1774: British law that extended Quebec's borders into the Ohio Valley and allowed Catholics there to practice freely. Colonists saw it as blocking westward settlement and counted it among the Intolerable Acts. Timeline: the 1770s ›
Bunker Hill1775: Early Revolutionary War battle near Boston, fought mostly on Breed's Hill. The British took the hill but suffered over 1,000 casualties, showing that colonial militia could stand up to professional troops. Timeline: the 1770s ›
Continental Army1775–1783: Army formed by the Second Continental Congress and led by George Washington. Often short of supplies and pay, it survived years of hardship and, with French help, defeated Britain to win independence. Timeline: the 1770s ›
Lexington and Concord1775: First battles of the American Revolution, fought on April 19, 1775, when British troops marched to seize colonial weapons. Colonial militia fired on the retreating British, and the war began. Timeline: the 1770s ›
Olive Branch Petition1775: Letter from the Second Continental Congress to King George III asking for peace and a resolution of grievances. The king refused to read it and declared the colonies in rebellion, making independence more likely. Timeline: the 1770s ›
Second Continental Congress1775–1781: Colonial assembly that created the Continental Army, named George Washington its commander, and adopted the Declaration of Independence. It acted as the national government during most of the Revolutionary War. Timeline: the 1770s ›
Battle of Trenton1776: Surprise attack on December 26, 1776, after Washington crossed the icy Delaware River and captured about 900 Hessian soldiers. The win, followed by Princeton, revived Patriot morale after months of defeats. Timeline: the 1770s ›
Common Sense1776: Pamphlet by Thomas Paine published in January 1776 that argued in plain language for independence from Britain and against monarchy. It sold widely and helped convince many colonists to support breaking away. Timeline: the 1770s ›
Declaration of Independence1776: Document adopted on July 4, 1776, announcing the colonies' break from Britain. Written mainly by Thomas Jefferson, it stated that all men are created equal with rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Timeline: the 1770s ›
Battle of Saratoga1777: American victory in New York in which British general John Burgoyne surrendered his army. Often called the turning point of the Revolution, it convinced France to openly ally with the United States. Timeline: the 1770s ›
Valley Forge1777–1778: Pennsylvania camp where Washington's army spent a harsh winter short of food and clothing, and many soldiers died of disease. Training by Baron von Steuben turned the survivors into a more disciplined fighting force. Timeline: the 1770s ›
Treaty of Alliance of 17781778: Agreement in which France formally allied with the United States against Britain after Saratoga. French troops, ships, and money proved crucial to the American victory, especially at Yorktown. Timeline: the 1770s ›
Articles of Confederation1781–1789: First U.S. constitution, which created a weak national government that could not tax or regulate trade. Its weaknesses, exposed by events like Shays' Rebellion, led to the Constitutional Convention of 1787. Timeline: the 1780s ›
Siege of Yorktown1781: Final major battle of the Revolutionary War, in Virginia, where American and French forces trapped British general Cornwallis's army. His surrender led Britain to open peace talks. Timeline: the 1780s ›
Shays' Rebellion1786–1787: Uprising of indebted Massachusetts farmers led by Daniel Shays against high taxes and farm foreclosures. The national government's inability to respond pushed leaders to call for a stronger constitution. Timeline: the 1780s ›
Constitutional Convention1787: Meeting in Philadelphia where delegates wrote the U.S. Constitution to replace the Articles of Confederation. Key deals included the Great Compromise on representation and the Three-Fifths Compromise on slavery. Timeline: the 1780s ›
Northwest Ordinance1787: Law setting how the Northwest Territory would be governed and how its parts could become states equal to the original ones. It banned slavery in the territory and supported public education. Timeline: the 1780s ›
Northwest Territory1787–1803: U.S. land north of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi, organized by the Northwest Ordinance. It later became Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota. Timeline: the 1780s ›
U.S. Constitution1787 (in effect 1789): Plan of government written in 1787 that created a stronger federal government with three branches and checks and balances. Ratified in 1788 and in effect from 1789, it is the oldest written national constitution in use. Timeline: the 1780s ›
George Washingtonpresident 1789–1797: Commander of the Continental Army and first U.S. president. He set lasting precedents, including the cabinet and serving only two terms, and his leadership helped hold the new nation together. Timeline: the 1780s ›
Judiciary Act of 17891789: Law by which Congress set up the federal court system, including district and circuit courts and a six-member Supreme Court. It also let the Supreme Court review some state court decisions. Timeline: the 1780s ›
Alexander Hamilton1755/1757–1804: First U.S. Secretary of the Treasury, who created a plan to pay off war debts, set up a national bank, and build manufacturing. He led the Federalists and was killed in a duel with Aaron Burr. Timeline: the 1790s ›
Bill of Rights1791: First ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, protecting freedoms such as speech, religion, the press, and fair trials. Promised to win over Anti-Federalists, they limit the federal government's power. Timeline: the 1790s ›
Cotton gin1793: Machine invented by Eli Whitney that quickly separated cotton seeds from fiber. It made cotton very profitable, causing slavery to expand rapidly across the South instead of fading away. Timeline: the 1790s ›
Jay Treaty1794: Agreement with Britain, negotiated by John Jay, under which British troops left forts in the Northwest. It avoided war but did not stop British seizures of American sailors, angering Democratic-Republicans. Timeline: the 1790s ›
Whiskey Rebellion1791–1794: Protest by western Pennsylvania farmers against a federal tax on whiskey. Washington led about 13,000 militia to end it, showing the new federal government could enforce its laws. Timeline: the 1790s ›
Washington's Farewell Address1796: Washington's public letter announcing he would not seek a third term. He warned Americans against political parties, sectional divisions, and permanent alliances with foreign nations. Timeline: the 1790s ›
XYZ Affair1797–1798: Diplomatic scandal in which French agents, called X, Y, and Z in reports, demanded bribes from U.S. diplomats before talks could begin. Public outrage led to the undeclared Quasi-War with France. Timeline: the 1790s ›
Alien and Sedition Acts1798: Federalist laws that made it harder for immigrants to become citizens and made it a crime to publish false or malicious criticism of the government. Jefferson and Madison opposed them in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. Timeline: the 1790s ›
Quasi-War1798–1800: Undeclared naval war between the United States and France, fought mostly in the Caribbean over French attacks on U.S. ships. President John Adams negotiated peace in 1800, avoiding a full-scale war. Timeline: the 1790s ›

U.S. history: The early republic 1800–1848

Thomas Jeffersonpresident 1801–1809: Main author of the Declaration of Independence and third U.S. president. He led the Democratic-Republicans, favored limited government and farmers, and made the Louisiana Purchase, though he also enslaved people. Timeline: the 1800s ›
Louisiana Purchase1803: U.S. purchase of about 828,000 square miles from France for $15 million. It roughly doubled the nation's size, gave control of the Mississippi River and New Orleans, and opened the West to expansion. Timeline: the 1800s ›
Marbury v. Madison1803: Supreme Court case in which Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that the Court can strike down laws that violate the Constitution. This power, called judicial review, made the courts an equal branch of government. Timeline: the 1800s ›
Lewis and Clark Expedition1804–1806: Journey led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, with help from Sacagawea, to explore the Louisiana Purchase and reach the Pacific. They mapped land, recorded plants and animals, and strengthened U.S. claims to the West. Timeline: the 1800s ›
Twelfth Amendment1804: Constitutional amendment requiring electors to cast separate votes for president and vice president. It fixed the problem shown in the 1800 election, when Jefferson and his running mate Aaron Burr tied. Timeline: the 1800s ›
Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves1807 (effective 1808): Federal law banning the importation of enslaved people into the United States starting January 1, 1808. It ended the legal Atlantic slave trade to the U.S., but slavery and the domestic slave trade kept growing. Timeline: the 1800s ›
Embargo Act of 18071807–1809: Law by President Jefferson banning U.S. exports to foreign countries to pressure Britain and France to respect American shipping. It badly hurt the U.S. economy, especially New England, and was repealed in 1809. Timeline: the 1800s ›
Battle of Tippecanoe1811: Battle in Indiana Territory in which forces under William Henry Harrison defeated warriors of the Native confederacy built by Tecumseh and his brother. It weakened Native resistance and made Harrison famous. Timeline: the 1810s ›
War of 18121812–1815: War between the United States and Britain over British seizure of U.S. sailors, trade restrictions, and support for Native resistance. It ended in a draw but boosted American nationalism and weakened Native nations. Timeline: the 1810s ›
Treaty of Ghent1814: Treaty signed in December 1814 ending the War of 1812. It returned borders to their prewar lines and settled none of the war's causes, but it began a long period of peace between the U.S. and Britain. Timeline: the 1810s ›
Battle of New Orleans1815: Major American victory led by Andrew Jackson on January 8, 1815, fought after the peace treaty was signed but before news arrived. It made Jackson a national hero and boosted American pride. Timeline: the 1810s ›
Adams–Onís Treaty1819: Treaty in which Spain gave Florida to the United States and the two countries set a border running to the Pacific. Negotiated by John Quincy Adams, it strengthened U.S. claims in the West. Timeline: the 1810s ›
Missouri Compromise1820: Deal admitting Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, and banning slavery in the rest of the Louisiana Territory north of 36°30′. It eased tensions over slavery for about three decades. Timeline: the 1820s ›
Monroe Doctrine1823: Policy announced by President James Monroe warning European powers not to start new colonies or interfere in the Americas. Weak at first, it later became a basis for U.S. power in the Western Hemisphere. Timeline: the 1820s ›
Erie Canal1817–1825: Canal across New York linking the Hudson River to Lake Erie. It sharply cut shipping costs between the Midwest and the East Coast and helped make New York City the nation's leading port. Timeline: the 1820s ›
Tariff of Abominations1828: Southerners' name for a high tariff on imported goods that protected Northern industry but raised costs for the South. Anger over it led South Carolina to claim the right to nullify federal laws. Timeline: the 1820s ›
Andrew Jacksonpresident 1829–1837: War of 1812 hero and seventh U.S. president who promoted himself as a champion of the common man. He expanded presidential power, fought the national bank, and forced Native nations off their lands. Timeline: the 1820s ›
Indian Removal Act1830: Law signed by Andrew Jackson allowing the government to move Native nations from the Southeast to land west of the Mississippi. It led to the forced removals known as the Trail of Tears. Timeline: the 1830s ›
Nat Turner's Rebellion1831: Revolt of enslaved people in Virginia led by Nat Turner, in which about 55 white people were killed. In response, many Black people were killed, and Southern states passed harsher laws restricting enslaved people. Timeline: the 1830s ›
Bank War1832–1836: Struggle between Andrew Jackson and supporters of the Second Bank of the United States. Jackson vetoed its recharter and removed federal money from it, and the bank's end contributed to the Panic of 1837. Timeline: the 1830s ›
Black Hawk War1832: Short war in Illinois and Wisconsin after Sauk and Fox people led by Black Hawk returned to their homeland. U.S. forces defeated them, opening the region to more white settlement. Timeline: the 1830s ›
Nullification Crisis1832–1833: Clash after South Carolina declared federal tariffs void within the state. Jackson threatened to use force, and a compromise tariff ended the crisis, but the states' rights argument resurfaced before the Civil War. Timeline: the 1830s ›
Whig Party1833–1856: U.S. political party formed to oppose Andrew Jackson, led by figures like Henry Clay. It favored a national bank, tariffs, and internal improvements, and split apart over slavery in the 1850s. Timeline: the 1830s ›
Republic of Texas1836–1845: Independent nation formed after the Texas Revolution, with Sam Houston as its first president. Debate over adding it to the U.S. as a slave state delayed annexation until 1845. Timeline: the 1830s ›
Texas Revolution1835–1836: Revolt by American settlers and Tejanos in Mexican Texas against Mexico's government. Despite the defeat at the Alamo, Texans won at San Jacinto and created the independent Republic of Texas. Timeline: the 1830s ›
Trail of Tears1830s: Forced removal of the Cherokee and other Southeastern nations to Indian Territory under the Indian Removal Act. Thousands died from disease, hunger, and exposure along the way. Timeline: the 1830s ›
Amistad1839–1841: Case of Africans who took over the slave ship Amistad and were captured off New York. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in 1841 that they had been illegally enslaved and were free, a major win for abolitionists. Timeline: the 1840s ›
Oregon Trail1840s–1860s: About 2,000-mile route from Missouri to Oregon used by hundreds of thousands of settlers traveling by wagon. It drove U.S. expansion into the Pacific Northwest but disrupted Native lands along the way. Timeline: the 1840s ›
Annexation of Texas1845: Admission of the Republic of Texas to the United States as a slave state. Mexico still considered Texas its territory, and a border dispute soon led to the Mexican-American War. Timeline: the 1840s ›
James K. Polkpresident 1845–1849: Eleventh U.S. president, who pursued Manifest Destiny. He settled the Oregon boundary with Britain and led the war with Mexico that added California and the Southwest to the United States. Timeline: the 1840s ›
Manifest Destiny1845: Belief that the United States was destined to spread across North America. The phrase, coined in 1845, was used to justify the annexation of Texas, the Oregon claim, and the Mexican-American War. Timeline: the 1840s ›
Mexican–American War1846–1848: War between the U.S. and Mexico that began over a border dispute after Texas annexation. The U.S. won large territory, but the question of slavery in these new lands deepened North-South conflict. Timeline: the 1840s ›
Oregon Treaty1846: Agreement with Britain dividing the Oregon Country at the 49th parallel. It peacefully gave the U.S. what became Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, and set much of today's border with Canada. Timeline: the 1840s ›
Brigham Young (Mormon migration)1846–1847: Leader of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints who led thousands of Mormons west to escape persecution. They settled the Salt Lake Valley in 1847 and built communities across what became Utah. Timeline: the 1840s ›

U.S. history: Expansion, Civil War and Reconstruction 1844–1877

California Gold Rush1848–1855: Rush of about 300,000 people to California after gold was found at Sutter's Mill in 1848. It sped California to statehood in 1850 but devastated Native Californians. Timeline: the 1840s ›
Seneca Falls Convention1848: First U.S. women's rights convention, held in New York and organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott. Its Declaration of Sentiments demanded equal rights for women, including the right to vote. Timeline: the 1840s ›
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo1848: Treaty ending the Mexican-American War in which Mexico gave up about half its territory, including California, for $15 million. It set the Rio Grande as the Texas border and reopened fights over slavery. Timeline: the 1840s ›
Harriet Tubmanc. 1822–1913: Woman who escaped slavery in Maryland in 1849 and returned many times to guide others to freedom on the Underground Railroad. During the Civil War she served the Union as a scout, spy, and nurse. Timeline: the 1840s ›
Compromise of 18501850: Set of laws admitting California as a free state, letting Utah and New Mexico decide on slavery, and creating a stronger Fugitive Slave Act. It delayed the Civil War but did not settle the slavery question. Timeline: the 1850s ›
Fugitive Slave Act1850: Part of the Compromise of 1850 that required Northerners to help capture people who had escaped slavery and denied them jury trials. It angered many Northerners and strengthened the abolitionist movement. Timeline: the 1850s ›
Frederick Douglassc. 1818–1895: Man who escaped slavery in 1838 and became a leading abolitionist speaker, writer, and newspaper editor. His autobiography and speeches exposed the cruelty of slavery and pushed for equal rights. Timeline: the 1850s ›
Uncle Tom's Cabin1852: Antislavery novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe that showed the suffering of enslaved families. It became a bestseller, turned many Northerners against slavery, and angered white Southerners. Timeline: the 1850s ›
Commodore Perry1853–1854: U.S. naval officer Matthew Perry, who led warships to Japan in 1853 and pressed it to open trade. The 1854 Treaty of Kanagawa ended Japan's long isolation and helped spark its modernization. Timeline: the 1850s ›
Gadsden Purchase1853: U.S. purchase of land from Mexico, now southern Arizona and New Mexico, for $10 million. It was bought mainly to build a southern transcontinental railroad route and set the final U.S.-Mexico border. Timeline: the 1850s ›
Kansas–Nebraska Act1854: Law by Stephen Douglas letting settlers in Kansas and Nebraska vote on slavery, overturning the Missouri Compromise line. It led to violence in Kansas and the founding of the Republican Party. Timeline: the 1850s ›
Republican Party1854: Political party founded in 1854 by opponents of the Kansas-Nebraska Act to stop slavery's spread into the West. It quickly became a major Northern party and elected Abraham Lincoln president in 1860. Timeline: the 1850s ›
Bleeding Kansas1854–1859: Violent conflict in Kansas Territory between proslavery and antislavery settlers over whether Kansas would allow slavery. Dozens were killed, and it showed popular sovereignty could not settle the slavery issue. Timeline: the 1850s ›
Caning of Charles Sumner1856: Attack in which South Carolina congressman Preston Brooks beat antislavery Senator Charles Sumner with a cane on the Senate floor. It showed how deeply slavery divided the nation. Timeline: the 1850s ›
Dred Scott v. Sandford1857: Supreme Court ruling that Black Americans were not citizens and that Congress could not ban slavery in the territories. It outraged Northerners and pushed the nation closer to civil war. Timeline: the 1850s ›
Panic of 18571857: Financial crisis caused by falling grain prices, bank failures, and railroad speculation. It hit the industrial North harder than the South, convincing some Southerners their cotton economy was stronger. Timeline: the 1850s ›
Lincoln–Douglas debates1858: Seven debates in Illinois between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas, focused on slavery in the territories. Douglas won the Senate race, but the debates made Lincoln a national figure. Timeline: the 1850s ›
John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry1859: Attempt by abolitionist John Brown to seize a federal arsenal in Virginia and start a slave uprising. He was captured and hanged, and the raid deepened Southern fears and North-South distrust. Timeline: the 1850s ›
Abraham Lincolnpresident 1861–1865: Sixteenth U.S. president, who led the Union through the Civil War. He issued the Emancipation Proclamation, pushed for the Thirteenth Amendment, and was assassinated shortly after the war ended. Timeline: the 1860s ›
American Civil War1861–1865: War between the Union and the Confederacy, caused mainly by disputes over slavery. The Union won, slavery was abolished, and about 620,000 soldiers or more died, making it America's deadliest war. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Confederate States of America1861–1865: Government formed by 11 Southern states that seceded to protect slavery, with Jefferson Davis as president. It fought the Union in the Civil War and collapsed after its defeat in 1865. Timeline: the 1860s ›
First Battle of Bull Run1861: First major battle of the Civil War, fought in Virginia on July 21, 1861, also called First Manassas. The Confederate victory showed that the war would be long and costly. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Fort Sumter1861: Union fort in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina, that Confederate forces attacked on April 12, 1861. Its surrender began the Civil War, and Lincoln then called for troops to put down the rebellion. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Jefferson Davispresident of the Confederacy 1861–1865: Former U.S. senator and secretary of war from Mississippi who served as president of the Confederacy. He struggled to unite the Southern states, and after the war he was imprisoned for two years. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Secession1860–1861: Withdrawal of Southern states from the Union after Abraham Lincoln's election, starting with South Carolina in December 1860. Eleven states left to form the Confederacy, leading to the Civil War. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Battle of Antietam1862: Battle in Maryland on September 17, 1862, the bloodiest single day in American history. It stopped Lee's invasion of the North and gave Lincoln the chance to issue the Emancipation Proclamation. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Homestead Act1862: Law offering 160 acres of western public land to settlers who lived on and farmed it for five years. It encouraged millions to move west but took land from Native nations. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Robert E. Leecommanded 1862–1865: Confederate general who led the Army of Northern Virginia and won major battles before defeats at Gettysburg and in 1864–1865. His surrender at Appomattox in 1865 effectively ended the Civil War. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Battle of Gettysburg1863: Three-day battle in Pennsylvania in July 1863 where the Union defeated Lee's invasion of the North. It had the most casualties of any Civil War battle and was a turning point of the war. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Emancipation Proclamation1863: Order by Abraham Lincoln, effective January 1, 1863, declaring enslaved people in Confederate-held areas free. It made ending slavery a Union war goal and allowed Black men to join the Union army. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Gettysburg Address1863: Short speech by Abraham Lincoln at the dedication of a cemetery at Gettysburg. He described the war as a test of whether a nation built on liberty and equality could survive, calling for a "new birth of freedom." Timeline: the 1860s ›
New York City draft riots1863: Violent protests in July 1863 against the Civil War draft, driven partly by anger that wealthy men could pay to avoid service. Rioters attacked Black residents, and more than 100 people were killed. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Siege of Vicksburg1863: Union campaign led by Ulysses S. Grant that captured Vicksburg, Mississippi, on July 4, 1863. It gave the Union control of the Mississippi River and split the Confederacy in two. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Sand Creek massacre1864: Attack by Colorado militia on a peaceful Cheyenne and Arapaho camp, killing more than 150 people, mostly women, children, and elderly. It caused national outrage and years of war on the Plains. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Sherman's March to the Sea1864: Union campaign in which General William T. Sherman's army marched from Atlanta to Savannah, destroying railroads, farms, and supplies. It weakened the South's ability and will to keep fighting. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Assassination of Abraham Lincoln1865: Killing of President Lincoln by Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth at Ford's Theatre on April 14, 1865, days after Lee's surrender. Andrew Johnson became president and led early Reconstruction. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Surrender at Appomattox1865: Surrender of Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia to Ulysses S. Grant on April 9, 1865, at Appomattox Court House, Virginia. It effectively ended the Civil War, though some fighting continued briefly. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Thirteenth Amendment1865: Constitutional amendment, ratified in December 1865, that abolished slavery throughout the United States, except as punishment for a crime. It completed the work begun by the Emancipation Proclamation. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Civil Rights Act of 18661866: First federal civil rights law, passed over President Johnson's veto. It declared people born in the U.S. to be citizens with equal rights to make contracts, own property, and sue in court. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Ku Klux Klanfounded 1865: White supremacist group founded in Tennessee after the Civil War that used threats and violence against Black Americans and their allies. It sought to undo Reconstruction and later revived in the 1910s and 1950s. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Alaska Purchase1867: U.S. purchase of Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million, arranged by Secretary of State William Seward. Critics mocked it as "Seward's Folly," but Alaska later proved rich in gold, oil, and other resources. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Reconstruction1865–1877: Period after the Civil War when the nation rebuilt the South and tried to protect the rights of formerly enslaved people. It brought new amendments and Black officeholders, but ended with white Southern rule restored. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Andrew Johnsonpresident 1865–1869: President who took office after Lincoln's assassination and favored a lenient Reconstruction. He clashed with Congress over rights for freed people and was impeached in 1868, avoiding removal by one vote. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Fourteenth Amendment1868: Constitutional amendment granting citizenship to all people born in the U.S. and guaranteeing equal protection of the laws. It became the basis for many later civil rights rulings. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Transcontinental Railroad1863–1869: First railroad linking the eastern U.S. rail network to the Pacific, completed at Promontory Summit, Utah, in 1869. Built largely by Chinese and Irish workers, it sped settlement and trade in the West. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Ulysses S. Grantpresident 1869–1877: Union general who won key victories and accepted Lee's surrender in 1865. As president, he enforced Reconstruction and fought the Ku Klux Klan, but his administration was marked by scandals. Timeline: the 1860s ›
Fifteenth Amendment1870: Constitutional amendment banning denial of the right to vote based on race. Southern states later used poll taxes, literacy tests, and intimidation to keep most Black men from voting. Timeline: the 1870s ›
Standard Oil1870–1911: Oil company founded by John D. Rockefeller that came to control about 90 percent of U.S. oil refining. Its monopoly led to antitrust action, and the Supreme Court broke it up in 1911. Timeline: the 1870s ›
Tweed Ring1860s–1871: A corrupt group led by William "Boss" Tweed of Tammany Hall that stole tens of millions of dollars from New York City. Exposed in 1871 by newspapers and Thomas Nast's cartoons, it symbolized Gilded Age city corruption. Timeline: the 1870s ›
Susan B. Anthony1820–1906: Leading women's rights activist who co-founded the National Woman Suffrage Association in 1869. She was arrested for voting in the 1872 election, and the 19th Amendment was later nicknamed the "Susan B. Anthony Amendment." Timeline: the 1870s ›
Panic of 18731873: A financial crisis set off when the bank Jay Cooke & Company failed after overinvesting in railroads. It began a long depression with mass unemployment and wage cuts, and it weakened Northern support for Reconstruction. Timeline: the 1870s ›
Battle of the Little Bighorn1876: Battle in Montana where Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho warriors led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse defeated George Custer's 7th Cavalry, killing Custer and about 260 soldiers. The U.S. Army then stepped up its campaigns. Timeline: the 1870s ›

U.S. history: The Gilded Age 1865–1898

Compromise of 1877 / Election of 18761876–1877: Informal deal that settled the disputed 1876 election between Samuel Tilden and Rutherford B. Hayes. Democrats accepted Hayes as president in exchange for removing federal troops from the South, which ended Reconstruction. Timeline: the 1870s ›
Great Railroad Strike of 18771877: The first nationwide strike in U.S. history, begun by railroad workers protesting wage cuts. It spread to many cities until President Hayes sent federal troops; about 100 people were killed, and it raised fears of labor unrest. Timeline: the 1870s ›
Nez Perce War1877: Conflict in which Chief Joseph's band of Nez Perce refused to move to a reservation and fled about 1,170 miles toward Canada, fighting the U.S. Army. They surrendered in Montana just short of the border and were sent into exile. Timeline: the 1870s ›
Sitting Bullc. 1831–1890: Hunkpapa Lakota leader who united Plains peoples to resist U.S. expansion and helped win the Battle of the Little Bighorn in 1876. He surrendered in 1881 and was killed by Indian police during an arrest attempt in 1890. Timeline: the 1870s ›
Chinese Exclusion Act1882: Federal law that banned Chinese laborers from immigrating to the United States. It was the first major U.S. law to exclude a group by nationality and was extended for decades until its repeal in 1943. Timeline: the 1880s ›
Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act1883: Law that required many federal jobs to be filled by competitive exams instead of political favors. Passed after an angry office seeker assassinated President Garfield in 1881, it began to weaken the spoils system. Timeline: the 1880s ›
American Federation of Laborfounded 1886: Federation of craft unions for skilled workers led by Samuel Gompers. It focused on practical goals like higher wages, shorter hours, and safer conditions, and it merged with the CIO in 1955 to form the AFL-CIO. Timeline: the 1880s ›
Geronimo1829–1909: Chiricahua Apache leader who resisted U.S. and Mexican forces for years in the Southwest. His surrender in 1886 marked the end of major Apache resistance, and he lived the rest of his life as a prisoner of war. Timeline: the 1880s ›
Haymarket affair1886: A bomb exploded at a Chicago labor rally for the eight-hour day, killing police officers and leading to deadly gunfire. Eight anarchists were convicted on weak evidence, and the event turned public opinion against unions. Timeline: the 1880s ›
Dawes Act1887: Law that broke up reservation land into individual plots for Native American families and sold the "surplus" to white settlers. Meant to force assimilation, it cut Native landholdings by about two-thirds by 1934. Timeline: the 1880s ›
Sherman Antitrust Act1890: First federal law against monopolies, banning business combinations that restrained trade. It was weakly enforced at first and even used against unions, but later presidents used it to break up big trusts. Timeline: the 1890s ›
Wounded Knee Massacre1890: U.S. soldiers of the 7th Cavalry killed about 250 to 300 Lakota people, many of them women and children, at Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota. It is often seen as the end of the Indian Wars. Timeline: the 1890s ›
Ellis Island1892–1954: Federal immigration station in New York Harbor that processed about 12 million immigrants. Most passed inspection within hours, and it became a lasting symbol of the immigrant experience in America. Timeline: the 1890s ›
Homestead Strike1892: Strike at Carnegie Steel's plant in Homestead, Pennsylvania, after wage cuts. A gun battle between workers and Pinkerton guards and the arrival of state militia broke the union, weakening steel unions for decades. Timeline: the 1890s ›
Ida B. Wells1862–1931: African American journalist who led a national campaign against lynching after three friends were lynched in Memphis in 1892. Her reporting exposed racial terror, and she helped found the NAACP. Timeline: the 1890s ›
Sierra Clubfounded 1892: Environmental organization founded by naturalist John Muir in San Francisco to protect the Sierra Nevada and other wild lands. It became one of the oldest and most influential conservation groups in the U.S. Timeline: the 1890s ›
Coxey's Army1894: A march of unemployed workers led by Jacob Coxey to Washington, D.C., during the depression of the 1890s, demanding federal public works jobs. Its leaders were arrested, but it was the first major protest march on Washington. Timeline: the 1890s ›
Pullman Strike1894: Nationwide railroad strike led by Eugene Debs's American Railway Union after the Pullman Company cut wages but not rents. President Cleveland sent federal troops and courts issued an injunction, crushing the strike. Timeline: the 1890s ›
Cross of Gold speech1896: Famous speech by William Jennings Bryan at the Democratic convention attacking the gold standard and calling for free coinage of silver. It won him the nomination, but he lost the election to William McKinley. Timeline: the 1890s ›
Jim Crow laws1870s–1960s: State and local laws, mainly in the South, that enforced racial segregation and kept Black citizens from voting through poll taxes and literacy tests. They were ended by the civil rights laws of 1964 and 1965. Timeline: the 1890s ›
Plessy v. Ferguson1896: Supreme Court decision that upheld a Louisiana law segregating railroad cars, creating the "separate but equal" rule. It gave legal cover to Jim Crow segregation until Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. Timeline: the 1890s ›

U.S. history: Progressive Era, world wars and the New Deal 1890–1945

Annexation of Hawaii1898: After American planters overthrew Queen Liliuokalani in 1893 with help from U.S. Marines, Congress annexed Hawaii in 1898. It gave the U.S. a key Pacific naval base, and Hawaii became a state in 1959. Timeline: the 1890s ›
Spanish–American War1898: Short war in which the U.S. helped Cuba win independence from Spain. The U.S. gained Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, becoming an overseas colonial power. Timeline: the 1890s ›
USS Maine1898: U.S. battleship that exploded in Havana Harbor, killing about 260 sailors. The cause was unclear, but newspapers blamed Spain, and the cry "Remember the Maine!" helped push the U.S. into war. Timeline: the 1890s ›
Open Door Policy1899–1900: U.S. policy announced by Secretary of State John Hay asking foreign powers to give all nations equal trading rights in China. It aimed to protect American business and keep China from being carved up. Timeline: the 1890s ›
Philippine–American War1899–1902: War in which Filipinos led by Emilio Aguinaldo fought U.S. rule after Spain gave up the islands. The U.S. won, but more than 200,000 Filipinos died, mostly civilians, and the war sparked debate over imperialism. Timeline: the 1890s ›
Andrew Carnegie1835–1919: Scottish immigrant who built Carnegie Steel into a giant by controlling every stage of production, then sold it in 1901 to form U.S. Steel. In "The Gospel of Wealth" he urged the rich to give back and funded thousands of libraries. Timeline: the 1900s ›
Platt Amendment1901: Terms the U.S. forced Cuba to add to its constitution, giving the U.S. the right to intervene in Cuban affairs and a naval base at Guantánamo Bay. It made Cuba a U.S. protectorate until most of it was repealed in 1934. Timeline: the 1900s ›
Theodore Rooseveltpresident 1901–1909: Progressive president who took office after McKinley's assassination. He broke up trusts, protected millions of acres of public land, began building the Panama Canal, and won the Nobel Peace Prize for ending the Russo-Japanese War. Timeline: the 1900s ›
Wright brothers1903: Orville and Wilbur Wright, bicycle makers from Ohio, made the first controlled, powered airplane flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. Their 12-second flight began the age of aviation. Timeline: the 1900s ›
Lochner v. New York1905: Supreme Court decision that struck down a New York law limiting bakers' working hours, citing "freedom of contract." It began an era in which courts often blocked laws regulating wages and working conditions. Timeline: the 1900s ›
Pure Food and Drug Act1906: Law that banned mislabeled or contaminated food and medicines in interstate trade. Passed with the Meat Inspection Act after Upton Sinclair's "The Jungle" exposed meatpacking conditions, it led to today's FDA. Timeline: the 1900s ›
Great White Fleet1907–1909: Fleet of 16 U.S. Navy battleships, painted white, that Theodore Roosevelt sent around the world. The voyage showed off America's new naval power, especially to Japan, and reflected his "Big Stick" diplomacy. Timeline: the 1900s ›
Panic of 19071907: Financial crisis in which panicked depositors pulled money out of New York banks and trust companies. Banker J.P. Morgan organized a rescue, and the crisis convinced Congress to create the Federal Reserve in 1913. Timeline: the 1900s ›
Model T1908–1927: Henry Ford's simple, affordable car. Using a moving assembly line from 1913, Ford cut its price sharply and sold about 15 million, putting cars within reach of ordinary families and changing American life. Timeline: the 1900s ›
NAACPfounded 1909: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, founded by W.E.B. Du Bois, Ida B. Wells, and others. It fought segregation in court, winning Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. Timeline: the 1900s ›
Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire1911: Fire at a New York City garment factory that killed 146 workers, mostly young immigrant women, partly because exit doors were locked. Public outrage led to new fire safety and labor laws. Timeline: 1911 ›
Federal Reserve1913: The U.S. central banking system created by the Federal Reserve Act under Woodrow Wilson. Made up of 12 regional banks and a central board, it manages the money supply and acts as a lender to banks in a crisis. Timeline: 1913 ›
Sixteenth Amendment1913: Constitutional amendment that gave Congress the power to collect a federal income tax. The income tax soon became the government's main source of money, funding a much larger federal role. Timeline: 1913 ›
Panama Canalbuilt 1904–1914: Canal across Panama linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, built by the U.S. after it backed Panama's independence from Colombia. It boosted trade and naval power; the U.S. handed it to Panama in 1999. Timeline: 1914 ›
Lusitania1915: British passenger liner sunk by a German submarine, killing about 1,200 people, including 128 Americans. It turned U.S. opinion against Germany and pushed Germany to limit submarine attacks for a time. Timeline: 1915 ›
Great Migrationc. 1910–1970: Movement of about 6 million African Americans from the rural South to cities in the North, Midwest, and West. They sought jobs and escape from Jim Crow, changing American politics, culture, and cities. Timeline: 1916 ›
Immigration Act of 19171917: Law passed over President Wilson's veto that required a literacy test for adult immigrants and banned most immigration from Asia. It reflected growing nativism and led to even stricter limits in the 1920s. Timeline: 1917 ›
Selective Service Act1917: Law that created a military draft for World War I. About 24 million men registered and nearly 3 million were drafted, helping the U.S. quickly build a large army. Timeline: 1917 ›
Woodrow Wilsonpresident 1913–1921: Progressive president who created the Federal Reserve and led the U.S. into World War I. His Fourteen Points and League of Nations shaped the peace, but the Senate rejected the League; he also segregated federal offices. Timeline: 1917 ›
Zimmermann Telegram1917: Secret German message proposing that Mexico join the war against the U.S. in exchange for regaining Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. British intelligence intercepted it, and it helped bring the U.S. into World War I. Timeline: 1917 ›
Fourteen Points1918: President Wilson's plan for peace after World War I, calling for open diplomacy, free trade, freedom of the seas, self-determination, and a League of Nations. Many points were left out of the final treaty. Timeline: 1918 ›
Palmer Raids (First Red Scare)1919–1920: Raids ordered by Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer after a wave of bombings, arresting thousands of suspected radicals, many of them immigrants, often without due process. Hundreds were deported. Timeline: 1919 ›
Nineteenth Amendment1920: Constitutional amendment that guaranteed women the right to vote. It capped decades of suffrage activism, although many women of color still faced barriers to voting for years. Timeline: 1920 ›
Prohibition (18th Amendment)1920–1933: Nationwide ban on making, selling, and transporting alcohol under the 18th Amendment. It led to illegal bars, smuggling, and the growth of organized crime, and it was repealed by the 21st Amendment. Timeline: 1920 ›
Sacco and Vanzetti1920–1927: Italian immigrant anarchists convicted of a 1920 robbery and murder in Massachusetts on disputed evidence and executed in 1927. Many saw the case as a sign of anti-immigrant and anti-radical prejudice. Timeline: 1921 ›
Tulsa race massacre1921: White mobs attacked the prosperous Black Greenwood district of Tulsa, Oklahoma, burning about 35 blocks and killing as many as 300 people. The event was largely left out of history books for decades. Timeline: 1921 ›
Teapot Dome scandal1922–1924: Bribery scandal in which Interior Secretary Albert Fall secretly leased government oil reserves to private oilmen. Fall became the first cabinet member jailed, and it tarnished President Harding's administration. Timeline: 1922 ›
Calvin Coolidgepresident 1923–1929: Republican president who took office after Harding's death. Known as "Silent Cal," he cut taxes, limited government, and favored business during the prosperous 1920s. Timeline: 1923 ›
Indian Citizenship Act1924: Law granting U.S. citizenship to all Native Americans born in the United States. Even so, some states kept Native people from voting for decades. Timeline: 1924 ›
Scopes Trial1925: Tennessee trial of teacher John Scopes for teaching evolution in violation of state law. Clarence Darrow and William Jennings Bryan faced off, and the case highlighted conflict between modern science and traditional religion. Timeline: 1925 ›
Herbert Hooverpresident 1929–1933: President when the Great Depression began. He favored voluntary action and limited federal relief, and many blamed him for the crisis; shantytowns were called "Hoovervilles," and he lost to Franklin Roosevelt in 1932. Timeline: 1929 ›
Wall Street Crash of 19291929: Collapse of U.S. stock prices in October 1929 after years of risky speculation and buying on credit. It wiped out savings and confidence and marked the start of the Great Depression. Timeline: 1929 ›
Great Depression1929–1939: The worst economic downturn in modern history, marked by bank failures and U.S. unemployment near 25 percent in 1933. It spread worldwide, led to the New Deal, and helped extremist parties rise abroad. Timeline: 1930 ›
Smoot–Hawley Tariff1930: Law that raised U.S. tariffs on thousands of imported goods to protect American producers. Other countries retaliated with their own tariffs, world trade shrank, and the Depression grew worse. Timeline: 1930 ›
Bonus Army1932: Thousands of World War I veterans camped in Washington, D.C., demanding early payment of a promised bonus. Army troops drove them out and burned their camp, badly hurting President Hoover's image. Timeline: 1932 ›
Agricultural Adjustment Act1933: New Deal law that paid farmers to grow less so crop prices would rise. It raised farm incomes but hurt many tenant farmers and sharecroppers, and the Supreme Court struck it down in 1936. Timeline: 1933 ›
Civilian Conservation Corps1933–1942: New Deal program that hired young unemployed men to plant trees, fight erosion, and build parks and trails. About 3 million men served, sending most of their pay home to their families. Timeline: 1933 ›
Emergency Banking Act1933: Law passed days after Franklin Roosevelt took office that closed banks, inspected them, and reopened only sound ones. It quickly restored trust, and depositors began putting money back in banks. Timeline: 1933 ›
Fireside chats1933–1944: Radio talks by Franklin Roosevelt explaining his policies in plain language. Starting with the 1933 banking crisis, they built public trust and showed the power of radio in politics. Timeline: 1933 ›
Franklin D. Rooseveltpresident 1933–1945: The only president elected four times. He led the U.S. through the Great Depression with the New Deal, which greatly expanded the federal government, and through most of World War II. Timeline: 1933 ›
New Deal1933–1939: Franklin Roosevelt's programs for relief, recovery, and reform during the Great Depression. It created jobs, Social Security, and financial regulations, greatly expanding the federal government's role. Timeline: 1933 ›
Tennessee Valley Authorityfounded 1933: Federal agency that built dams in the Tennessee River valley to control floods and produce cheap electricity. It brought power and development to a poor region, though critics opposed government-run utilities. Timeline: 1933 ›
Twenty-first Amendment1933: Constitutional amendment that repealed the 18th Amendment and ended national Prohibition. It is the only amendment ever ratified by state conventions instead of state legislatures. Timeline: 1933 ›
Securities and Exchange Commissionfounded 1934: Federal agency created to regulate the stock market after the 1929 crash. It requires companies to share accurate financial information and works to prevent fraud. Timeline: 1934 ›
Dust Bowl1930s: Region of the southern Great Plains hit by drought and huge dust storms after years of over-plowing. Farms failed, and hundreds of thousands of people moved west, many to California. Timeline: 1935 ›
Neutrality Acts1935–1939: Laws meant to keep the U.S. out of foreign wars by banning arms sales and loans to nations at war. They reflected isolationism, but in 1939 Congress allowed "cash-and-carry" sales that helped Britain and France. Timeline: 1935 ›
Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States1935: Supreme Court case that struck down a key part of the New Deal's National Industrial Recovery Act. The Court ruled Congress had given too much power to the president and overstepped its power over trade. Timeline: 1935 ›
Social Security Act1935: New Deal law that created old-age pensions paid by payroll taxes, unemployment insurance, and aid to needy families. At first it left out farm and domestic workers, which excluded many Black workers. Timeline: 1935 ›
Wagner Act1935: Law guaranteeing most private-sector workers the right to form unions and bargain collectively. It created the National Labor Relations Board, and union membership grew rapidly. Timeline: 1935 ›
Works Progress Administration1935–1943: The largest New Deal jobs program, employing about 8.5 million people to build roads, bridges, schools, and parks. It also hired artists, writers, and musicians. Timeline: 1935 ›
Court-packing plan1937: Franklin Roosevelt's proposal to add up to six justices to the Supreme Court after it struck down New Deal laws. Congress rejected it, though the Court soon began upholding his programs. Timeline: 1937 ›
Lend-Lease1941–1945: U.S. program that sent weapons, food, and supplies to Britain, the Soviet Union, China, and other Allies, to be paid back later or returned. It made America the "arsenal of democracy" before and during the war. Timeline: 1941 ›
Japanese American internment1942–1945: Forced removal of about 120,000 people of Japanese ancestry, most of them U.S. citizens, from the West Coast to prison camps. In 1988 the U.S. government formally apologized and paid survivors. Timeline: 1942 ›
Manhattan Project1942–1945: Secret U.S. program, with British and Canadian help, to build the atomic bomb. Scientists led by J. Robert Oppenheimer succeeded in 1945, and the bombs used on Japan began the nuclear age. Timeline: 1942 ›
Zoot Suit Riots1943: Attacks in Los Angeles by U.S. servicemen on young Mexican Americans and others wearing baggy "zoot suits." Police often arrested the victims, and the riots revealed wartime racial tensions. Timeline: 1943 ›
G.I. Bill1944: Law giving World War II veterans money for college or job training, low-cost home loans, and unemployment pay. It helped millions join the middle class, though Black veterans were often denied full benefits. Timeline: 1944 ›
Korematsu v. United States1944: Supreme Court decision that upheld the forced removal of Japanese Americans as a wartime necessity. It is widely seen as a grave error, and the Court formally rejected its reasoning in 2018. Timeline: 1944 ›

U.S. history: Postwar America, Cold War and civil rights 1945–1980

Harry S. Trumanpresident 1945–1953: President who took office when Roosevelt died in 1945. He decided to use the atomic bomb, launched the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan to contain communism, desegregated the military, and led the U.S. in the Korean War. Timeline: 1945 ›
House Un-American Activities Committee1938–1975: Committee of the U.S. House of Representatives that investigated alleged communist influence, including in Hollywood. Its hearings led to blacklists that ended many careers and fueled the Second Red Scare. Timeline: 1947 ›
Jackie Robinson1919–1972: Baseball player who broke Major League Baseball's color line when he joined the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947. He faced racist abuse with courage, and his success became an early milestone of the civil rights movement. Timeline: 1947 ›
Taft–Hartley Act1947: Law passed over Truman's veto that limited union power. It banned the closed shop, let states pass right-to-work laws, and allowed the president to delay strikes that threatened national safety. Timeline: 1947 ›
Desegregation of the armed forces1948: President Truman's Executive Order 9981 required equal treatment for all members of the military regardless of race. It led to the end of all-Black units by the mid-1950s and was an early civil rights victory. Timeline: 1948 ›
Fair Deal1949: President Harry Truman's domestic program to extend the New Deal, including a higher minimum wage, more public housing, and expanded Social Security. Congress passed some parts but rejected national health insurance. Timeline: 1949 ›
McCarthyism (Second Red Scare)c. 1950–1954: A period of intense fear of communist spies in the U.S., named for Senator Joseph McCarthy, who made sweeping accusations, often without evidence. Many people lost jobs; the Senate censured McCarthy in 1954. Timeline: 1950 ›
Rosenberg trial1951–1953: The trial of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, an American couple convicted of passing atomic secrets to the Soviet Union. They were executed in 1953, and the case became a symbol of Cold War fears and debate. Timeline: 1951 ›
Twenty-second Amendment1951: A constitutional amendment, ratified in 1951, that limits a president to two elected terms. It was passed after Franklin D. Roosevelt won four presidential elections, breaking the two-term tradition. Timeline: 1951 ›
Dwight D. Eisenhowerpresident 1953–1961: Allied commander in Europe during World War II who became the 34th U.S. president. He ended the Korean War, built the Interstate Highway System, and sent troops to enforce school desegregation in Little Rock. Timeline: 1953 ›
Brown v. Board of Education1954: A Supreme Court decision that ruled racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, overturning the 'separate but equal' idea from Plessy v. Ferguson. It became a major legal victory for the civil rights movement. Timeline: 1954 ›
Emmett Till1955: A 14-year-old Black teenager from Chicago who was kidnapped and murdered in Mississippi in 1955. His mother's choice of an open-casket funeral and the acquittal of his killers drew national outrage and energized the civil rights movement. Timeline: 1955 ›
Montgomery bus boycott1955–1956: A year-long protest in which Black residents of Montgomery, Alabama, refused to ride segregated city buses after Rosa Parks's arrest. It ended with bus desegregation and made Martin Luther King Jr. a national leader. Timeline: 1955 ›
Rosa Parks1913–2005: A civil rights activist in Montgomery, Alabama, who was arrested in 1955 for refusing to give up her bus seat to a white passenger. Her arrest sparked the Montgomery bus boycott and made her a lasting symbol of the movement. Timeline: 1955 ›
Interstate Highway System1956: A national network of highways created by the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956 under President Eisenhower. It boosted trucking, car travel, and suburban growth, and was also justified as aiding national defense. Timeline: 1956 ›
Civil Rights Act of 19571957: The first federal civil rights law since Reconstruction. It created the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights and a Civil Rights Division in the Justice Department to protect voting rights, though its enforcement powers were weak. Timeline: 1957 ›
Little Rock Nine1957: Nine Black students who integrated Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. When the governor and white mobs tried to block them, President Eisenhower sent federal troops to protect the students and enforce the court order. Timeline: 1957 ›
NASA1958: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the U.S. agency created in 1958 after Sputnik to run the civilian space program. It led the Apollo missions that landed astronauts on the Moon in 1969. Timeline: 1958 ›
Greensboro sit-ins1960: A protest begun by four Black college students who sat at a whites-only lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina, and refused to leave. Sit-ins quickly spread across the South and led to the founding of SNCC. Timeline: 1960 ›
Freedom Riders1961: Black and white activists who rode interstate buses into the South to test a Supreme Court ruling banning segregated bus terminals. They were attacked by mobs, and the federal government then enforced desegregation of terminals. Timeline: 1961 ›
John F. Kennedypresident 1961–1963: The 35th U.S. president and the youngest person elected to the office. He handled the Bay of Pigs and Cuban Missile Crisis, launched the Moon program, and proposed civil rights legislation before his assassination in 1963. Timeline: 1961 ›
James Meredithintegrated Ole Miss 1962: The first Black student admitted to the University of Mississippi, in 1962. Riots broke out when he enrolled, and federal troops were sent to restore order. In 1966 he was shot during a solo civil rights march. Timeline: 1962 ›
Silent Spring1962: A book by biologist Rachel Carson that showed how pesticides such as DDT harmed birds, wildlife, and people. It helped launch the modern environmental movement and led to a U.S. ban on DDT in 1972. Timeline: 1962 ›
Assassination of John F. Kennedy1963: The killing of President Kennedy in Dallas, Texas, on November 22, 1963. Lee Harvey Oswald was charged, and the Warren Commission concluded he acted alone. Lyndon B. Johnson became president. Timeline: 1963 ›
Birmingham campaign1963: Civil rights protests in Birmingham, Alabama, led by Martin Luther King Jr. and others. Televised images of police using dogs and fire hoses on young marchers shocked the nation and built support for a federal civil rights law. Timeline: 1963 ›
Equal Pay Act of 19631963: A federal law that made it illegal to pay women less than men for doing the same work in the same workplace. It was an early win for women's rights, though gaps in pay continued. Timeline: 1963 ›
I Have a Dream1963: The speech Martin Luther King Jr. gave at the March on Washington, describing his hope for a nation where people are judged by their character rather than their race. It is one of the most famous speeches in U.S. history. Timeline: 1963 ›
March on Washington1963: A huge rally for jobs and freedom in Washington, D.C., on August 28, 1963, attended by about 250,000 people. It featured Martin Luther King Jr.'s 'I Have a Dream' speech and helped push Congress to pass civil rights laws. Timeline: 1963 ›
Martin Luther King Jr.1929–1968: Baptist minister and leading figure of the civil rights movement who used nonviolent protest against segregation and racial injustice. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964 and was assassinated in Memphis in 1968. Timeline: 1963 ›
Medgar Evers1925–1963: NAACP leader in Mississippi who organized voter registration drives and boycotts. He was shot and killed outside his home in 1963; his killer was not convicted until 1994. His death added urgency to the civil rights movement. Timeline: 1963 ›
The Feminine Mystique1963: A book by Betty Friedan describing the frustration of many American women limited to the role of housewife. It helped spark the second wave of the women's movement in the 1960s and 1970s. Timeline: 1963 ›
Civil Rights Act of 19641964: A landmark law banning discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in public places and employment. It ended legal segregation in places like restaurants and hotels and created the EEOC. Timeline: 1964 ›
Great Society1964–1966: President Lyndon Johnson's set of domestic programs aimed at ending poverty and racial injustice. It included Medicare, Medicaid, federal aid to education, the War on Poverty, and voting rights protections. Timeline: 1964 ›
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution1964: A resolution passed by Congress after reported attacks on U.S. ships off North Vietnam. It gave President Johnson broad power to use military force in Southeast Asia and led to a major expansion of the Vietnam War. Timeline: 1964 ›
Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States1964: A Supreme Court case that upheld the Civil Rights Act of 1964's ban on discrimination in hotels and motels. The Court said Congress could do this under its power to regulate interstate commerce. Timeline: 1964 ›
Lyndon B. Johnsonpresident 1963–1969: The 36th U.S. president, who took office after Kennedy's assassination. He passed major civil rights laws and Great Society programs like Medicare, but his expansion of the Vietnam War made him deeply unpopular. Timeline: 1964 ›
Twenty-fourth Amendment1964: A constitutional amendment, ratified in 1964, that banned poll taxes in federal elections. Poll taxes had been used in Southern states to keep Black citizens and poor people from voting. Timeline: 1964 ›
Griswold v. Connecticut1965: A Supreme Court case that struck down a state ban on birth control for married couples. The Court ruled that the Constitution protects a right to privacy, an idea later used in other major cases. Timeline: 1965 ›
Malcolm X1925–1965: A Black leader and Nation of Islam minister who urged Black pride and self-defense rather than nonviolence alone. He later left the group and broadened his views, but was assassinated in New York in 1965. Timeline: 1965 ›
Medicare and Medicaid1965: Government health insurance programs created in 1965 as part of the Great Society. Medicare covers Americans 65 and older, and Medicaid helps low-income people. They became major parts of the U.S. health care system. Timeline: 1965 ›
Selma to Montgomery marches1965: Civil rights marches in Alabama for voting rights. On 'Bloody Sunday,' state troopers beat peaceful marchers on the Edmund Pettus Bridge. National outrage helped push Congress to pass the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Timeline: 1965 ›
Voting Rights Act of 19651965: A federal law that banned literacy tests and other practices used to keep Black Americans from voting, and allowed federal oversight of elections in some states. Black voter registration in the South rose sharply. Timeline: 1965 ›
Watts riots1965: Six days of unrest in the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles that began after a police traffic stop. Thirty-four people died. The riots exposed anger over poverty, discrimination, and police treatment in Black urban communities. Timeline: 1965 ›
Black Panther Partyfounded 1966: A Black political group founded in Oakland, California, by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale. It promoted armed self-defense against police abuse and ran community programs like free breakfasts for children. The FBI worked to break it up. Timeline: 1966 ›
Freedom of Information Act1966: A federal law that lets the public request records from U.S. government agencies, with some exceptions such as national security. It made government more open and is widely used by journalists and researchers. Timeline: 1966 ›
Miranda v. Arizona1966: A Supreme Court case ruling that police must tell suspects in custody of their rights, including the right to remain silent and to have a lawyer, before questioning them. These warnings are known as Miranda rights. Timeline: 1966 ›
National Organization for Womenfounded 1966: A women's rights group founded in 1966 by Betty Friedan and others. It pushed for equal pay, an end to job discrimination, abortion rights, and the Equal Rights Amendment. Timeline: 1966 ›
United Farm Workersfounded 1966: A labor union for farmworkers led by Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta. Through strikes and a national grape boycott, it won the first major union contracts for farmworkers in 1970. Timeline: 1966 ›
Loving v. Virginia1967: A Supreme Court case that struck down state laws banning marriage between people of different races. It was brought by Richard and Mildred Loving, an interracial couple who had been convicted in Virginia for marrying. Timeline: 1967 ›
Thurgood Marshalljustice 1967–1991: Civil rights lawyer for the NAACP who won Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. In 1967 he became the first Black justice on the U.S. Supreme Court, where he served until 1991. Timeline: 1967 ›
Twenty-fifth Amendment1967: A constitutional amendment, ratified in 1967, that explains what happens if a president dies, resigns, or cannot serve, and how to fill a vacant vice presidency. It was used when Gerald Ford became vice president and then president. Timeline: 1967 ›
1968 Democratic National Convention1968: The Democratic Party's convention in Chicago, where police clashed violently with anti-war protesters outside while the party nominated Hubert Humphrey. The televised chaos showed how divided the country was over Vietnam. Timeline: 1968 ›
Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.1968: The killing of Martin Luther King Jr. in Memphis, Tennessee, on April 4, 1968. James Earl Ray was convicted. Riots broke out in many cities, and Congress soon passed the Fair Housing Act. Timeline: 1968 ›
Civil Rights Act of 19681968: A law that included the Fair Housing Act, which banned discrimination in the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, or national origin. It passed days after Martin Luther King Jr.'s assassination. Timeline: 1968 ›
My Lai Massacre1968: The killing of hundreds of unarmed Vietnamese villagers, mostly women, children, and elderly people, by U.S. soldiers. When it became public in 1969, it increased opposition to the Vietnam War; one officer was convicted. Timeline: 1968 ›
Robert F. Kennedy1925–1968: U.S. attorney general under his brother John F. Kennedy and later a senator from New York. While running for president in 1968 on an anti-war, pro-civil rights platform, he was assassinated in Los Angeles. Timeline: 1968 ›
Apollo 111969: The NASA mission that landed the first humans on the Moon on July 20, 1969. Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin walked on the surface while Michael Collins orbited above, a major U.S. victory in the Space Race. Timeline: 1969 ›
Occupation of Alcatraz1969–1971: A 19-month occupation of Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay by Native American activists calling themselves Indians of All Tribes. It drew attention to broken treaties and helped launch the Red Power movement. Timeline: 1969 ›
Richard Nixonpresident 1969–1974: The 37th U.S. president. He opened relations with China, eased tensions with the Soviet Union, created the EPA, and ended U.S. combat in Vietnam, but resigned in 1974 because of the Watergate scandal. Timeline: 1969 ›
Stonewall riots1969: Protests that began after police raided the Stonewall Inn, a gay bar in New York City, in June 1969. Patrons and neighbors fought back for several nights, and the event became a turning point for the gay rights movement. Timeline: 1969 ›
Earth Day1970: A nationwide day of environmental teach-ins and protests on April 22, 1970, involving millions of Americans. It showed broad public support for protecting nature and helped lead to the EPA and new environmental laws. Timeline: 1970 ›
Kent State shootings1970: An incident in May 1970 when Ohio National Guard soldiers fired on students protesting the U.S. invasion of Cambodia at Kent State University, killing four. It sparked student strikes at hundreds of campuses. Timeline: 1970 ›
Pentagon Papers1971: A secret Defense Department study of U.S. decision-making in Vietnam, leaked by Daniel Ellsberg. It showed officials had misled the public. The Supreme Court allowed newspapers to publish it, a key win for press freedom. Timeline: 1971 ›
Twenty-sixth Amendment1971: A constitutional amendment, ratified in 1971, that lowered the voting age from 21 to 18. Supporters argued that young people old enough to be drafted to fight in Vietnam should be able to vote. Timeline: 1971 ›
War on drugs1971–: A U.S. government campaign against illegal drug use and trade, announced by President Nixon in 1971 and expanded in the 1980s. Tougher penalties led to a sharp rise in prison populations, and the policy remains widely debated. Timeline: 1971 ›
Equal Rights Amendment1972–1982: A proposed constitutional amendment guaranteeing equal rights regardless of sex. Congress passed it in 1972, but opponents led by Phyllis Schlafly helped block it, and it fell short of the 38 states needed by the 1982 deadline. Timeline: 1972 ›
Furman v. Georgia1972: A Supreme Court case that struck down the death penalty as it was then applied, finding it arbitrary and unfair. States rewrote their laws, and the Court allowed executions to resume in 1976. Timeline: 1972 ›
Nixon visit to China1972: President Nixon's trip to communist China in February 1972, the first by a U.S. president. It began normal relations between the two countries and shifted the Cold War balance by putting pressure on the Soviet Union. Timeline: 1972 ›
Title IX1972: A federal law banning sex discrimination in any school or education program that receives federal money. It greatly expanded opportunities for girls and women, especially in school and college sports. Timeline: 1972 ›
American Indian Movementfounded 1968: A Native American activist group founded in Minneapolis to fight poverty, police abuse, and broken treaties. In 1973 its members occupied Wounded Knee, South Dakota, for 71 days to protest government policies. Timeline: 1973 ›
Endangered Species Act1973: A federal law that protects plants and animals at risk of extinction and the habitats they depend on. It helped species such as the bald eagle recover and is one of the strongest U.S. environmental laws. Timeline: 1973 ›
Roe v. Wade1973: A Supreme Court decision that recognized a constitutional right to abortion, based on the right to privacy. It became one of the most debated rulings in U.S. history and was overturned by Dobbs v. Jackson in 2022. Timeline: 1973 ›
War Powers Resolution1973: A law passed over President Nixon's veto requiring the president to notify Congress within 48 hours of sending troops into combat and to withdraw them within 60 days without approval. It reacted to the Vietnam War. Timeline: 1973 ›
Nixon resignation1974: Richard Nixon's resignation as president on August 9, 1974, as he faced likely impeachment over the Watergate cover-up. He is the only U.S. president to resign, and Gerald Ford took his place. Timeline: 1974 ›
United States v. Nixon1974: A unanimous Supreme Court ruling that President Nixon had to hand over secret White House tape recordings related to Watergate. It showed that a president is not above the law and led directly to his resignation. Timeline: 1974 ›
Watergate scandal1972–1974: A political scandal that began with a break-in at Democratic offices in the Watergate building, followed by a cover-up by the Nixon White House. It led to Nixon's resignation and greater distrust of government. Timeline: 1974 ›
Jimmy Carterpresident 1977–1981: The 39th U.S. president. He made human rights central to foreign policy and brokered the Camp David Accords, but struggled with inflation, an energy crisis, and the Iran hostage crisis. He later won the Nobel Peace Prize. Timeline: 1977 ›
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke1978: A Supreme Court case that ruled strict racial quotas in college admissions unconstitutional, but allowed race to be considered as one factor. It shaped affirmative action policies for decades. Timeline: 1978 ›
Iran hostage crisis1979–1981: A crisis in which Iranian students seized the U.S. embassy in Tehran and held 52 Americans hostage for 444 days. A failed rescue hurt President Carter, and the hostages were freed the day Ronald Reagan took office. Timeline: 1979 ›
Three Mile Island1979: A partial meltdown at a nuclear power plant near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, the worst accident in U.S. commercial nuclear history. Little radiation escaped, but it raised public fears and slowed the building of new nuclear plants. Timeline: 1979 ›

U.S. history: Contemporary America 1980–present

Ronald Reaganpresident 1981–1989: The 40th U.S. president, a conservative who cut taxes, reduced some regulations, and greatly increased military spending. He took a hard line against the Soviet Union but later signed an arms reduction treaty with Gorbachev. Timeline: 1981 ›
Sandra Day O'Connorjustice 1981–2006: The first woman to serve on the U.S. Supreme Court, appointed by President Reagan in 1981. A moderate conservative, she often cast the deciding vote in close cases. Timeline: 1981 ›
Challenger disaster1986: The explosion of the space shuttle Challenger 73 seconds after launch in January 1986, killing all seven crew members, including teacher Christa McAuliffe. It halted shuttle flights for over two years. Timeline: 1986 ›
Iran–Contra affair1985–1987: A scandal in which Reagan administration officials secretly sold weapons to Iran and used the money to fund the Contra rebels in Nicaragua, which Congress had banned. Several officials were convicted, though some convictions were later overturned. Timeline: 1986 ›
Americans with Disabilities Act1990: A civil rights law banning discrimination against people with disabilities in jobs, public services, and public places. It required accessibility features like ramps and changed how buildings and services are designed. Timeline: 1990 ›
Los Angeles riots1992: Several days of unrest in Los Angeles after a jury acquitted four police officers who had been videotaped beating Black motorist Rodney King. More than 60 people died, and the events highlighted racial tensions and police misconduct. Timeline: 1992 ›
Bill Clintonpresident 1993–2001: The 42nd U.S. president. His time in office saw strong economic growth, a balanced budget, and NAFTA. He was impeached by the House in 1998 over lying about an affair but was acquitted by the Senate. Timeline: 1993 ›
NAFTA1994: The North American Free Trade Agreement, which removed most trade barriers among the U.S., Canada, and Mexico starting in 1994. It increased trade but was blamed for some lost U.S. manufacturing jobs; it was replaced in 2020. Timeline: 1994 ›
Oklahoma City bombing1995: A truck bombing of a federal building in Oklahoma City by anti-government extremist Timothy McVeigh, killing 168 people. It was the deadliest act of domestic terrorism in U.S. history. Timeline: 1995 ›
Impeachment of Bill Clinton1998–1999: The House impeached President Clinton in December 1998 on charges of lying under oath and obstructing justice related to an affair with a White House intern. The Senate acquitted him in February 1999. Timeline: 1998 ›
Bush v. Gore2000: A Supreme Court decision that stopped the recount of presidential votes in Florida in the very close 2000 election. It effectively gave Florida's electoral votes, and the presidency, to George W. Bush. Timeline: 2000 ›
USA PATRIOT Act2001: A law passed soon after the September 11 attacks that expanded the government's power to conduct surveillance and investigate suspected terrorists. Critics argued it threatened privacy and civil liberties. Timeline: 2001 ›
War on Terror2001–: The U.S.-led global campaign against terrorist groups launched after the September 11 attacks. It included wars in Afghanistan and Iraq and expanded government surveillance, which raised debates about civil liberties. Timeline: 2001 ›
Department of Homeland Security2002: A cabinet department created after the September 11 attacks that combined 22 federal agencies to protect the U.S. from terrorism and other threats. It oversees border security, immigration enforcement, and disaster response. Timeline: 2002 ›
Hurricane Katrina2005: A powerful hurricane that struck the Gulf Coast in August 2005. Levees failed in New Orleans, flooding most of the city, and more than 1,800 people died. The slow government response drew harsh criticism. Timeline: 2005 ›
Great Recession2007–2009: The worst economic downturn in the U.S. since the Great Depression, triggered by a housing bubble and risky mortgage lending. Banks failed, millions lost jobs and homes, and the government passed large bailouts and stimulus. Timeline: 2008 ›
Barack Obamapresident 2009–2017: The 44th U.S. president and the first African American to hold the office. He led recovery from the Great Recession, passed the Affordable Care Act, and ordered the raid that killed Osama bin Laden. Timeline: 2009 ›
Affordable Care Act2010: A health care law signed by President Obama, often called Obamacare, that expanded health insurance through subsidies, a larger Medicaid program, and new rules for insurers. The Supreme Court upheld most of it in 2012. Timeline: 2010 ›
Dodd–Frank Act2010: A law passed after the 2008 financial crisis to tighten regulation of banks and Wall Street. It created the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau and aimed to prevent future taxpayer bailouts. Timeline: 2010 ›
Obergefell v. Hodges2015: A Supreme Court decision ruling that the Constitution guarantees same-sex couples the right to marry. It made same-sex marriage legal in all 50 states. Timeline: 2015 ›
Donald Trumppresident 2017–2021, 2025–: Businessman and TV personality who became the 45th and 47th U.S. president. His first term included tax cuts and new trade tariffs; he was impeached twice and acquitted both times, then won the 2024 election. Timeline: 2017 ›
George Floyd protests2020: Nationwide and global protests after George Floyd, a Black man, was killed by a Minneapolis police officer in May 2020. They drew attention to racism and police violence; the officer was convicted of murder in 2021. Timeline: 2020 ›
January 6 United States Capitol attack2021: An attack on the U.S. Capitol on January 6, 2021, by supporters of President Trump trying to stop Congress from certifying Joe Biden's election win. More than 1,500 people were later charged with crimes. Timeline: 2021 ›
Joe Bidenpresident 2021–2025: The 46th U.S. president, who earlier served as Barack Obama's vice president. His term included the COVID-19 vaccine rollout, a large infrastructure law, the U.S. withdrawal from Afghanistan, and support for Ukraine. Timeline: 2021 ›
Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization2022: A Supreme Court decision that overturned Roe v. Wade, ruling that the Constitution does not protect a right to abortion. It returned the power to regulate or ban abortion to the states. Timeline: 2022 ›

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